GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu Department of School Education Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime HISTORY HIGHER SECONDARYSECOND YEAR 12th History_EM_Index.indd 1 12th History_EM_Index.indd 1 04/01/2024 14:50:07 04/01/2024 14:50:07 www.tntextbooks.in
(ii) Government of Tamil Nadu First Edition - 2019 Revised Edition - 2020, 2022, 2023 Reprint - 2021, 2024 (Published under new syllabus)Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational Services Corporation www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in State Council of Educational Research and Training © SCERT 2019 Printing & PublishingContent Creation The wisepossess all NOT FOR SALE 12th History_EM_Index.indd 2 12th History_EM_Index.indd 2 04/01/2024 14:50:07 04/01/2024 14:50:07 www.tntextbooks.in
(iii) HOW TO USE THE BOOK Te subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced Introduction Key words and technical terms explained at the end of the lesson for clarity Glossary For self-study and self evaluation Exercise Visual representations intended to make the complex simple and make the students grasp difcult concepts easily Infographs Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for getting experiential learning Te scope of the lesson is presented Learning Objectives Provides additional information related to the subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students Using technology for learning activities, which enables the students to access digital sources relevant to their lessons. ICT Corner Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups Activities Describe the main points briefy in bullets for recapitulation Summary List of books and net sources for further reading References 12th History_EM_Index.indd 3 12th History_EM_Index.indd 3 04/01/2024 14:50:08 04/01/2024 14:50:08 www.tntextbooks.in
(iv) E-bookAssessment UnitContentPage NoMonth1 Rise of Nationalism in India 1 June 2 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 16 June 3 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 31 June 4 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation 42 July 5 Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles 61 July 6 Communalism in Nationalist Politics 73 July 7 Last Phase of Indian National Movement 84 August 8 Reconstruction of Post-colonial India 100 August 9 Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order 115 August & September 10 Modern World: Te Age of Reason 130 October 11 Te Age of Revolutions 151 October 12 Europe in Turmoil 176 October & November 13 Imperialism and its Onslaught 195 November 14 Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 219 November 15 Te World afer World War II 244 December Timeline 265 TABLE OF CONTENTS 12th History_EM_Index.indd 4 12th History_EM_Index.indd 4 04/01/2024 14:50:08 04/01/2024 14:50:08 www.tntextbooks.in
1 Introduction Te political and economic centralisation of India achieved by the British for the better exploitation and control of India inevitably led to the growth of national consciousness and the birth of the national movement. Te history of nationalism in India begins with the campaigns and struggles for social reforms in the nineteenth century followed by the Western-educated Indians’ prayers and petitions for political liberties. With the return of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi from South Africa in 1915, and his leadership of the Indian nationalist movement in 1919 Indian nationalism entered a mass phase. Prior to Gandhi, prominent leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and others took the early initiative to educate the Indians about their national identity and colonial exploitation. In this chapter, while tracing the origin and growth of Indian Nationalism, we focus on the contribution of these leaders who are known as the early nationalists. 1.1 Socio-economic Background (a) Implications of the New Land Tenures The British destroyed the traditional basis of Indian land system. In the pre-British days, the land revenue was realised by sharing the actual crop with the cultivators. The British fixed the land revenue in cash Rise of Nationalism in India 1 UNIT Learning Objectives To acquaint ourselves with „„ Changes in agrarian conditions and import of British manufactures ruin Indian handicrafs and the artisanal class „„ Periodical outbreak of famines force landless labourers and jobless artisans to emigrate „„ Introduction of Western education and birth of national awakening. „„ Other contributory factors for the rise of Nationalism in India „„ Modern Indian intelligentsia lays the foundation of Indian National Congress „„ Early Nationalists and their contribution, especially of Naoroji and his Drain Teory Nationalism: Broadly, nationalism means loyalty and devotion to a nation. It is a consciousness or tendency to exalt and place one nation above all others, emphasising promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations. Q.R.Code 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 1 1/6/2022 2:33:00 AM www.tntextbooks.in
2 Rise of Nationalism in India Te fnished products made from those raw materials were then transported back to the Indian markets. Mass production with the help of technological advancement enabled them to food the Indian market with their goods. It was available at a comparatively cheaper price than the Indian handloom cloth. Prior to the arrival of the British, India was known for its handloom products and handicrafs. It commanded a good world market. However, as a result of the colonial policy, gradually Indian handloom products and handicrafs lost there market, domestic as well as international. Import of English articles into India threw the weavers, the cotton dressers, the carpenters, the blacksmiths and the shoemakers out of employment. India became a procurement area for the raw material and the farmers were forced to produce industrial crops like indigo and other cash crops like cotton for use in British factories. Due to this shif, subsistence agriculture, which was the mainstay for several hundred years, sufered leading to food scarcity. Indigo cultivation without any regard to various contingencies, such as failure of crops, fall in prices and droughts or floods. Moreover, the practice of sale in settlement of debt encouraged money lenders to advance money to landholders and resorting to every kind of trickery to rob them of their property.Tere were also two other major implications of the new land settlements introduced by the East India Company. Tey institutionalised the commodifcation of land and commercialisation of agriculture in India. As mentioned earlier, there was no private property in land in pre-British era. Now, land became a commodity that could be transferred either by way of buying and selling or by way of the administration taking over land from holders, in lieu of default on payment of tax/rent. Land taken over in such cases was auctioned of to another bidder. Tis created a new class of absentee landlords who lived in the cities and extracted revenue from the lands without actually living on the lands. In the traditional agricultural set-up, the villagers produced largely for their consumption among themselves. Afer the new land settlements, agricultural produce was predominantly for the market. Te commodifcation of land and commercialisation of agriculture did not improve the lives and conditions of the peasants. Instead, this created discontent among the peasantry and made them restive. Tese peasants later on turned against the imperialists and their collaborators. (b) Laissez Faire Policy and De-industrialization: Impact on Indian Artisans Te policy of the Company in the wake of Industrial Revolution in England resulted in the de-industrialization of India. Tis continued until the beginning of the World War I. Te British Government pursued a policy of free trade or laissez faire . Raw materials like cotton, jute and silks from India were taken to Britain. 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 2 1/6/2022 2:33:00 AM www.tntextbooks.in
3 Rise of Nationalism in India years (1891-1900), nineteen million had died in India in famines alone. Sadly when people were dying of starvation millions of tonnes of wheat was exported to Britain. During the 1866 Orissa Famine, for instance, while a million and a half people starved to death, the British exported 200 million pounds of rice to Britain. Te Orissa Famine prompted nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji to begin his lifelong investigations into Indian poverty. Te failure of two successive monsoons caused a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876-78. Te viceroy Lytton adopted a hands-of approach similar to that followed in Orissa. An estimated 3.5 million people died in the Madras presidency. Madras Famine Indentured Labour Te introduction of plantation crops such as cofee, tea and sugar in Empire colonies such as Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean islands, and South Africa required enormous labour. In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon asking for “coolies” to work on the cofee plantations. Te Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Tanjavur, who reported that the people were very much attached to the soil and unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil. But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any incentive from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work Te Indigo revolt of 1859 – 60 in Bengal was one of the responses from the Indian farmer to the oppressive policy of the British. Indian tenants were forced to grow indigo by their planters who were mostly Europeans. Used to dye the clothes indigo was in high demand in Europe. Peasants were forced to accept meagre amounts as advance and enter into unfair contracts. Once a peasant accepted the contract, he had no option but to grow indigo on his land. Te price paid by the planter was far lower than the market price. Many a times, the peasants could not even pay their land revenue dues. Hoping that the authorities would address their concerns, the peasants wrote several petitions to authorities and organised peaceful protests. As their plea for reform went in vain, they revolted by refusing to accept any further advances and enter into new contracts. Peasants, through the Indigo revolt of 1859-60, were able to force the planters to withdraw from northern-Bengal. (c) Famines and Emigration of Indians to Overseas British Colonies Famines As India became increasingly de-industrialised and weavers and artisans engaged in handicrafs were thrown out of employment, there were recurrent famines due to the neglect of irrigation and oppressive taxation on land. Before the arrival of the British, Indian rulers had ameliorated the difculties of the populace in times of famines by providing tax relief, regulating the grain prices and banning food exports from famine-hit areas. But the British extended their policy of non-intervention (laissez faire) even to famines. As a result, millions of people died of starvation during the Raj. It has been estimated that between 1770 and 1900, twenty fve million Indians died in famines. William Digby, the editor of Madras Times , pointed out that during 1793-1900 alone an estimated fve million people had died in all the wars around the world, whereas in just ten Q.R.Code 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 3 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
4 Rise of Nationalism in India 1.2 Western Education and its Impact (a) Education in Pre-British India Education in pre-colonial India was characterised by segmentation along religious and caste lines. Among the Hindus, Brahmins had the exclusive privilege to acquire higher religious and philosophical knowledge. Tey monopolised the education system and occupied positions in the society, primarily as priests and teachers. Tey studied in special seminaries such as Vidyalayas and Chatuspathis. Te medium of instruction was Sanskrit, which was considered as the sacred language. Technical knowledge – especially in relation to architecture, metallurgy, etc. – was passed hereditarily. Tis came in the way of innovation. Another shortcoming of this system was that it barred women, lower castes and other under-privileged people from accessing education. Te emphasis on rote learning was another impediment to innovation. (b) Contribution of Colonial State: Macaulay System of Education Te colonial government aided the spread of modern education in India for a diferent reason than educating and empowering the Indians. To administer a large colony like India, the British needed a large number of personnel to work for them. It was impossible for the British to import the educated lot, needed in such large numbers, from Britain. With this aim, the English Education Act was passed by the Council of India in 1835. T.B. Macaulay drafed this system of education introduced in India. Consequently, the colonial administration started schools, colleges and universities, imparting English and modern education, in India. Universities were established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857. Te colonial government expected this section of educated Indians to be loyal to the British and act as the pillars of the British Raj.as coolies in cofee and tea plantations under the indentured labour system. Te abolition of slavery in British India in 1843 also facilitated the processes of emigration to Empire colonies. In 1837 the number of immigrant Tamil labourers employed in Ceylon cofee estate was estimated at 10,000. Te industry developed rapidly and so did the demand for Tamil labour. In 1846 its presence was estimated at 80,000 and in 1855 at 128,000 persons. In 1877, the famine year, there were nearly 380,000 Tamil labourers in Ceylon. Indentured labour Besides Ceylon, many Indians opted to emigrate as indentured labour to other British colonies such as Mauritius, Straits Settlements, Caribbean islands, Trinidad, Fiji and South Africa. In 1843 it was ofcially reported that 30,218 male and 4,307 females had entered Mauritius as indentured labourers. By the end of the century some 5,00,000 labourers had moved from India to Mauritius. Indentured Labour: Under this penal contract system (indenture), labourers were hired for a period of fve years and they could return to their homeland with passage paid at the end. Many impoverished peasants and weavers went hoping to earn some money. It turned out to be as worse than slave labour. Te colonial state allowed agents ( kanganis ) to trick or kidnap indigent landless labourers. Te labourers sufered terribly on the long sea voyages and many died on the way. Te percentage of deaths of indentured labour during 1856-57, in a ship bound for Trinidad from Kolkata is as follows: 12.3% of all males, 18.5% of the females, 28% of the boys 36% of the girls and 55% of the infants perished. 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 4 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
5 Rise of Nationalism in India (c) Role of Educated Middle Class The economic and administrative transformation on the one side and the growth of Western education on the other gave the space for the growth of new social classes. From within these social classes, a modern Indian intelligentsia emerged. The “neo-social classes” created by the British Raj, which included the Indian trading and business communities, landlords, money lenders, English-educated Indians employed in imperial subordinate services, lawyers and doctors, initially adopted a positive approach towards the colonial administration. However, soon they realised that their interests would be better served only in independent India. People of the said social classes began to play a prominent role in promoting patriotism amongst the people. The consciousness of these classes found articulation in a number of associations prior to the founding of the Indian National Congress at the national level. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo Ghose, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroz Shah Mehta, Surendra Nath Banerjea and others who belonged to modern Indian intelligentsia led the social, religious and political movements in India. Educated Indians had exposure to ideas of nationalism, democracy, socialism, etc. articulated by John Locke, James Stuart Mill, Mazzini, Garibaldi, Rousseau, Thomas Paine, Marx and other western intellectuals. The right of a free press, the right of free speech and the right of association were the three inherent rights, which their European counterparts held dear to their heart, and the educated Indians too desired to cling to. Various forums came into existence, where people could meet and discuss the issues affecting their interests. This became possible now at the national level, due to the rapid expansion of transport network and establishment of postal, telegraph and wireless services all over India. T. B. Macaulay was India’s frst law member of the Governor General in Council from 1834 to 1838. Before Macaulay arrived in India the General Committee of Public Instruction was formed in 1823 with the responsibility to guide the East India Company on the matter of education and the medium of instruction. Te Committee was split into two groups. Te Orientalist group advocated education in vernacular languages. Te Anglicists advocated Western education in English. Macaulay was on the side of Anglicists and wrote his famous ‘Minute on Indian Education’ in 1835. In this Minute, he argued for Western education in the English language. His intention behind supporting the Anglicists was that he wanted to create a class of persons from within India who would 'be Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect'. T.B. Macaulay Te British created an educated Indian middle class for their own ends but sneered at it as the Babu class. Tat very class, however, became the progressive intelligentsia of India and played a leading role in mobilising the people for the liberation of the country. University of Madras 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 5 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
6 Rise of Nationalism in India Te reformers of nineteenth century responded to the challenge posed by Western Enlightenment knowledge based on reason. Indian national consciousness emerged as a result of the rethinking triggered by these reforms. Te Brahmo Samaj was founded by Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Other socio-cultural organisations like the Prarthana Samaj (1867), the Arya Samaj (1875) were founded subsequently. Roy’s initiative was followed up by reformers like Keshav Chandra Sen and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. Abolition of sati and child marriage and widow remarriage became the main concerns for these reformers. Te Aligarh movement played a similar role among the Muslims. Slowly, organisations and associations of political nature came up in diferent parts of British India to vent the grievances of the people. 1.4 Other Decisive Factors for the Rise of Nationalism (a) Memories of 1857 Indian national movement dates its birth from the 1857 uprising. Te outrages committed by the British army afer putting down the revolt remained “un-avenged”. Even the court-martial law and formalities were not observed. Ofcers who sat on the court martial swore that they would hang their prisoners, guilty or innocent and, if any dared to raise his voice against such indiscriminate vengeance, he was silenced by his angry colleagues. Persons condemned to death afer the mockery of a trial were ofen tortured by soldiers before their execution, while the ofcers looked on approvingly. It is worth recalling what Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay Presidency, wrote to Sir John Lawrence, future Viceroy of India (1864) about the British siege of Delhi during June-September, 1857: ‘...A wholesale vengeance is being taken without distinction of friend or foe. As regards the looting, we have indeed surpassed Nadirshah.’ (d) Contribution of Missionaries One of the earliest initiatives to impart modern education among Indians was taken up by the Christian missionaries. Inspired by the proselytizing sprit, they attacked polytheism and caste inequalities that were prevalent among the Hindus. One of the methods adopted by the missionaries, to preach Christianity, was through modern secular education. Tey provided opportunities to acquire education to the underprivileged and the marginalised sections, who were denied learning opportunities in the traditional education system. However only a very small fraction converted to Christianity. But the challenge posed by Christianity led to various social and religious reform movements. Mission School 1.3 Social and Religious Reforms Te English educated intelligentsia felt the need for reforming the society before involving the people in any political programmes. Te reform movements of nineteenth century are categorised as 1. Reformist movements such as the Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the Prarthana Samaj, founded by Dr Atmaram Pandurang and the Aligarh Movement, represented by Syed Ahmad Khan; 2. Revivalist movements such as the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission and the Deoband Movement. 3. Tere were social movements led by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana Guru and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga Adigal, Vaikunda Swamigal and later Iyothee Tassar in Tamilnadu. All these reformers and their contributions have been dealt with comprehensively in the XI Std. text book. 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 6 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
7 Rise of Nationalism in India of nationalist and vernacular news papers came to be launched to build public opinion and they did yeomen service in fostering nationalist consciousness. Among them Amrit Bazaar Patrika , Te Bombay Chronicle, Te Tribune, Te Indian Mirror, Te Hindu and Swadesamitran were prominent. (e) Invoking India’s glorious Past Orientalists like William Jones, Charles Wilkins and Max Muller explored and translated religious, historical and literary texts from Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic into English and made them available to all. Infuenced by the richness of Indian traditions and scholarship, many of the early nationalists made a fervent plea to revive the pristine glory of India. Aurobindo Ghose would write, ‘Te mission of Nationalism, in our view, is to recover Indian thought, Indian character, Indian perceptions, Indian energy, Indian greatness and to solve the problems that perplex the world in an Indian spirit and from the Indian standpoint.’ 1.5 Birth of Indian Associations (a) Madras Native Association One of the frst attempts to organise and vent the grievances against the British came through the formation of the Madras Native Association (MNA) on 26 February 1852. An association of landed and business classes of the Madras Presidency, they expressed their grievances against the Company’s administration in the revenue, education and judicial spheres. Gajula Lakshminarasu, who inspired the foundation of MNA, was a prominent businessman in Madras city. Gajula Lakshminarasu (b) Racial Discrimination Te English followed a policy of racial discrimination. Te systematic exclusion of the Indians from higher ofcial positions came to be looked upon as an anti-Indian policy measure and the resultant discontent of the Indian upper classes led the Indians to revolt against the British rule. When civil service examinations were introduced the age limit was fxed at twenty one. When Indians were making it, with a view to debarring the Indians from entering the civil services, the age limit was reduced to nineteen. Similarly, despite requests from Indian educated middle class to hold the civil service examinations simultaneously in India, the Imperial government refused to concede the request. (c) Repressive as well as Exploitative Measures against Indians Repressive regulations like Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code (1870), punishing attempts to excite disafection towards the Government, and the Vernacular Press Act (1878), censoring the press, evoked protest. Abolition of custom duty on cotton manufactures imported from England and levy of excise duty on cotton fabrics manufactured in India created nationwide discontent. During the viceroyalty of Ripon the Indian judges were empowered through the Ilbert Bill to try Europeans. But in the face of resistance from the Europeans the bill was amended to suit the European interests. (d) Role of Press Te introduction of printing press in India was an event of great signifcance. It helped people to spread, modern ideas of self-government, democracy, civil rights and industrialisation. Te press became the critic of politics. It addressed the people on several issues afecting the country. Raja Rammohan Roy’s Sambad Kaumudi (1821) in Bengali and Mirat-Ul-Akbar (1822) in Persian played a progressive role in educating the people on issues of public importance. Later on a number 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 7 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
8 Rise of Nationalism in India (b) Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS) After the Madras Native Association became defunct there was no such public organisation in the Madras Presidency. As many educated Indians viewed this situation with dismay, the necessity for a political organisation was felt and in May 1884 the Madras Mahajana Sabha was organised. In the inaugural meeting held on 16 May 1884 the prominent participants were: G. Subramaniam, Viraraghavachari, Ananda Charlu, Rangiah, Balaji Rao and Salem Ramaswamy. With the launch of the Indian National Congress, after the completion of the second provincial conference of Madras Mahajana Sabha, the leaders after attending the first session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Bombay amalgamated the MMS with the INC. (c) Indian National Co ngress (I NC) Te idea of forming a political organisation that would raise issues and grievances against the colonial rule did not emerge in a vacuum. Between 1875 and 1885 there were many agitations against British policies in India. Te Indian textile industry was campaigning for imposition of cotton import duties in 1875. In 1877, demands for the Indianisation of Government services were made vociferously. Tere were protests against the Vernacular Press Act of 1878. In 1883, there was an agitation in favour of the Ilbert Bill. But these agitations and protests were sporadic and not coordinated. There was a strong realisation that these protests would not impact on the policy makers unless a national political organisation was formed. From this realisation was born the Indian National Congress. The concept of India as a nation was reflected in the name of the organisation. It also introduced the concept of nationalism. A.O. Hume Te Association presented its grievances before British Parliament when it was discussing the East India Company’s rule in India before the passing of the Charter in 1853. In a petition submitted in December 1852, the MNA pointed out that the ryotwari and zamindari systems had thrown agricultural classes into deep distress. It urged the revival of the ancient village system to free the peasantry from the oppressive interference of the zamindars and the Company ofcials. Te petition also made a complaint about the judicial system which was slow, complicated and imperfect. It pointed out that the appointment of judges without assessing their judicial knowledge and competence in the local languages afected the efciency of the judiciary. Te diversion of state funds to missionary schools, under the grants-in-aid system, was also objected to in the petition.Te MNA petition was discussed in the Parliament in March 1853. H. D. Seymour, Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to Madras in October 1853. He visited places like Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Tirunelveli. However, as the Charter Act of 1853 allowed British East India Company to continue its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation for the transfer of British territories in India to the direct control of the Crown. MNA sent its second petition to British Parliament, signed by fourteen thousand individuals, pleading the termination of Company rule in India. Te life of MNA was short. Lakshminarasu died in 1866 and by 1881, the association ceased to exist. Tough the MNA did not achieve much in terms of reforms, it was the beginning of organised efort to articulate Indian opinion. In its lifetime, the MNA operated within the boundaries of Madras Presidency. Te grievances that the MNA raised through its petitions and the agitations it launched were from the point of view of the elite, particularly the landed gentry of Madras Presidency. What was lacking was a national political organisation representing every section of the society, an organisation that would raise the grievances and agitate against the colonial power for their redress. Te Indian National Congress flled this void. 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 8 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
9 Rise of Nationalism in India EWNS Not to Scale Allahabad188818921910 Indian National Congress Sessions 1885-1947 Patna 1912 Benaras1905 Guwahati1926 Amritsar1919 Lahore 1893190019091929 Meerut1946Delhi1918192319321947Madras1887189418981903190819141927 No Session - 1930, 1935, 1941-1945 Poona1895 Belgaum1924 Kakinada1923Bombay1885188919041915191819341942Surat1907Ahmedabad 1902 1921KarachiTripuri1939 Haripura1938 Faizpur1937 Amravati1897 Nagpur18911920Calcutta18861890189619011906191119171920 (Special)19281933 Gaya1922 Ramgarh1940Kanpur 1925Lucknow 1899 1916 1936 (Special)(Special) (Special)19131931 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 9 1/6/2022 2:33:02 AM www.tntextbooks.in
10 Rise of Nationalism in India Economic High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasants. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. Te Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the imported goods for the beneft of swadeshi goods. Administrative Higher ofcials who had responsibility of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. Tis meant that educated Indians who could not aford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Terefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress. Judicial Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary. (d) Contributions of Early Nationalists (1885–1915) Te early nationalists in the INC came from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers, college and university teachers, doctors, journalists and such others represented the Congress. However, they came from diferent regions of the country and this made INC a truly a national political organisation. Tese leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional methods of presenting petitions, prayers and memorandums and thereby earned the moniker of “Moderates”. It was also the time some sort of an understanding about colonialism was evolving in India. Tere was no ready-made anti-colonial understanding available for reference in the late nineteenth century when the INC was formed. It was the early nationalists who helped the formulation of the idea of we as a nation. Tey were developing the indigenous anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their In December 1884, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired English ICS ofcer, presided over a meeting of the Teosophical Society in Madras. Te formation of a political organisation that would work on an all India basis was discussed and the idea of forming the Indian National Congress emerged in this meeting. Te Indian National Congress was formed on 28 December 1885 in Bombay. Apart from A.O Hume, another important founding member was W C. Bonnerjee, who was elected the frst president. Tough the activities of the INC then revolved around petitions and memoranda, from the very beginning the founders of the INC worked to bring every section of the society into its ambit. One of the main missions of the INC was to weld the Indians into a nation. Tey were convinced that the struggle against the colonial rule will be successful only if Indians saw themselves as the members of a nation. To achieve this, the INC acted as a common political platform for all the movements that were being organised in diferent parts of the country. Te INC provided the space where the political workers from diferent parts of the country could gather and conduct their political activities under its banner. Even though the organization was small with less than a hundred members, it had an all-India character with representation from all regions of India. It was the beginning of the mobilisation of people on an all-India basis. Te major objectives and demands of INC were Constitutional Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government. W.C. Bonnerjee 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 10 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
11 Rise of Nationalism in India were involved in journalism. Dadabhai Naoroji founded and edited two journals called Voice of India and RastGoftar . Surendranath Banerjea edited the newspaper called Bengalee. Bal Gangadhar Tilak edited Kesari and Mahratta. This is the means that they used to educate the common people about the colonial oppression and spread nationalist ideas. News regarding the initiatives taken by the INC were taken to the masses through these newspapers. For the first time, in the history of India, the press was used to generate public opinion against the oppressive policies and acts of the colonial government. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a firm believer that the lower middle classes, peasants, artisans and workers could play a very important role in the national movement, He used his newspapers to articulate the discontent among this section of the people against the oppressive colonial rule. He called for national resistance against imperial British rule in India. On 27 July 1897, Tilak was arrested and charged under Section 124 A of the Indian Penal Code. Civil liberty, particularly in the form of freedom of expression and press became the significant part of Indian freedom struggle. 1.6 Naoroji and his Drain Theory Dadabhai Naoroji, known as the ‘Grand Old Man of Indian Nationalism’, was a prominent early nationalist. He was elected to the Bombay Municipal Corporation and Town Council during the 1870s. Elected to the British Parliament in 1892, he founded the India Society (1865) and the East India Association (1866) in London. He was elected thrice as the President of the INC. own which helped future mass leaders like M. K Gandhi.From the late 1890s there were growing diferences within the INC. Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were advocating radical approaches instead of merely writing petitions, prayers and memorandums. Tese advocates of radical methods came to be called the “extremists” as against those who were identifed as moderates. Teir objective became clear in 1897 when Tilak raised the clarion call “Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it”. Tilak and his militant followers were now requesting Swaraj instead of economic or administrative reforms that the moderates were requesting through their petitions and prayers.Tough they criticised each other, it would be wrong to place them in the opposing poles. Both moderates and militants, with their own methods, were signifcant elements of the larger Indian nationalist movement. In fact, they contributed towards the making of the swadeshi movement. Te partition of Bengal in 1905, by the colonial government, which you will be studying in the next lesson, was vehemently opposed by the Indians. Te swadeshi movement of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise, national education, self-help and use of Indian languages. Te method of mass mobilisation and boycott of British goods and institutions suggested by the radicals was also accepted by the Moderates. Both the Moderates and the Radicals were of the same view when it came to accepting the fact that they needed to fulfil the role of educators. They tried to instil nationalist consciousness through various means including the press. When the INC was founded in 1885, one-third of the members were journalists. Most stalwarts of the early freedom movement Bal Gangadhar Tilak Surendranath Banerjea 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 11 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
12 Rise of Nationalism in India Indians who strove for the reforms of Indian society. „„ Factors like the bitter memories of 1857, policy of racial discrimination, repressive measures against dissension contributed to the growth of nationalism. „„ Modern intelligentsia formed political organisation like Madras Native Association (1852), Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884) and Indian National Congress (1885) to voice their opinions and grievances. „„ An important role of these leaders was to educate the common mass about the exploitative colonial rule and its impact on their day to day life. Drain of wealth theory enunciated by Dadabhai Naoroji exposed the British loot of the resources of India. His major contribution to the Indian nationalist movement was his book Poverty and Un-British Rule of the British in India (1901). In this book, he put forward the concept of ‘drain of wealth’. He stated that in any country the tax raised would have been spent for the wellbeing of the people of that country. But in British India, taxes collected in India were spent for the welfare of England. Naoroji argued that India had exported an average of 13 million pounds worth of goods to Britain each year from 1835 to 1872 with no corresponding return. Te goods were in lieu of payments for profts to Company shareholders living in Britain, guaranteed interest to investors in railways, pensions to retired ofcials and generals, interest for the money borrowed from England to meet war expenses for the British conquest of territories in India as well as outside India. All these, going in the name of Home Charges, Naoroji asserted, made up a loss of 30 million pounds a year. Summary „„ Te land and revenue reforms implemented by the East India Company since late eighteenth century had its impact on the agrarian conditions in India. „„ Te growth of heavy machine industries in Britain allowed East India Company to export raw materials from India to Britain and take back the fnished products – a process that led to the decline of Indian handicrafs, making the artisans go jobless. „„ Landless labourers and jobless artisans emigrating to Empire colonies to escape starvation deaths. „„ The unintended result of Western education introduced by the British was the emergence of a new class of educated EXERCISE Q.R.Code I. Choose the correct answer 1. When did Gandhi return to India from South Africa? (a) 1915 (b) 1916 (c) 1917 (d) 1918 2. In which year English Education was introduced in India? (a) 1825 (b) 1835 (c) 1845 (d) 1855 3. Find the odd one. (a) William Jones (b) Ch arles Wilkins (c) Max Muller (d) Aur obindo Ghose 4. ‘Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it’ was said by(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak(b) Dadabhai Naoroji(c) Subhash Chandra Bose(d) Bharathi Dadabhai Naoroji 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 12 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
13 Rise of Nationalism in India 10. Who was called the ‘Grand Old Man of India? (a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak(b) M.K. Gandhi(c) Dadabhai Naoroji (d) Subhash Chandra Bose 11. Who wrote the book - ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ ?(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak(b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale(c) Dadabhai Naoroji(d) M.G. Ranade 12. Assertion (A): Te British Government pursued a policy of free trade (or) laissez fair. Reason(R): India had comparative advantage from England's free trade policy.(a) A is correct but R does not explain A.(b) A is correct and R explains A.(c) A is correct and R is incorrect.(d) Both A and R are wrong. 13. Which of the following statements are correct on Orissa famine? Statement I: In 1866 a million and a half people of Orissa died of starvation. Statement II: During that time the British exported 200 million pounds of rice to Britain. Statement III: Te Orissa famine prompted Dadabai Naoroji to begin a life long investigation of poverty in India.(a) I & II (b) I & III(c) None of the above(d) All of the above II. Write brief answers 1. What is nationalism ? 2. Describe the implications of the new land tenures? 3. Write a note on Indigo revolt? 4. Discuss the importance of Ilbert Bill. 5. Match and choose the correct answer from the code given below. (A) Bala Gangadhar Tilak - 1. Voice of India (B) Dadabhai Naoroji - 2. Madras Time (C) Macaulay - 3. Kesari (D) William Digby - 4. Minute on Indian Education Code (a) 2, 4, 1, 3 (b) 3, 1, 4, 2 (c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 4, 2, 3, 1 6. Which one of the following is correctly matched?(a) English Education Act - 1843(b) Te abolition of slavery - 1859(c) Madras Native Association - 1852(d) Indigo revolt - 1835 7. Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following associations?(i) East India Association(ii) Madras Mahajana Sabha(iii) Madras Native Association(iv) India SocietySelect the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, i, iii, iv (b) ii, iii , i, iv (c) iii, iv, i, ii (d) iii, i v, ii, i 8. Te Indian National Congress was founded by _________(a) Subhash Chandra Bose(b) Gandhi(c) A.O. Hume(d) B.G. Tilak 9. Te frst President of the Indian National Congress was (a) Surendranath Bannerjea(b) Badruddin Tyabji(c) A.O. Hume(d) W.C. Bonnerjee 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 13 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
14 Rise of Nationalism in India 4. Explain the objectives of the Indian National Congress and contributions of the early nationalists to the cause of India’s liberation from the colonial rule. V. Activity 1. A debate on what would have happened if western system of education had not been introduced by the British in India. 2. Compiling a volume containing biographical account of the early nationalists from Tamil Nadu with images and pictures. VI. Map Work Mark the following on the outline map of India. Venues of Congress Sessions. 1. Bombay 2. Ca lcutta 3. Madra s 4. Ahmedabad 5. Luc know 6. Ka npur 7. Surat 8. La hore 9. Po ona 10. Allahabad REFERENCES „„ Bipan Chandra, et al., India’s Struggle for Independence , Penguin, New Delhi, 2016. „„ Desai, A.R., Social Background of Indian Nationalism , Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 6th Edition 2011. „„ R. Suntharalingam, Politics and Nationalist Awakening in South India , 1852–1891, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1974. „„ Sashi Tharoor, An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India , Aleph, New Delhi, 2016. INTERNET RESOURCES www.brittanica.com 5. Highlight the contribution of missionaries to modern education. 6. What were the grievances represented by the Madras Native Association in their petition to the British Parliament? 7. Make a list of the important political associations formed in India prior to the Indian National Congress. 8. Identify the prominent early Indian nationalists. III. Write short answers 1. Analyse Macaulay's ‘Minute on Indian Education’. 2. What do you know of the Madras visit of the chairman of Indian Reform Society in 1853? 3. Point out the role played by press in creating nationalist consciousness in British India 4. Describe the way in which indentured labour was organized in British India? 5. Name the prominent participants in the inaugural meeting of Madras Mahajana Sabha held in May 1884? 6. Attempt a brief account of early emigration of labourers to Ceylon. 7. What were the items which constituted Home Charges? IV. Answer the following in detail 1 . Discuss the impact of Western education on Indian Middle Class, highlighting the latter’s role in reforming and regenerating Indian Society. 2. Examine the Socio-economic causes for the rise of nationalism British in India. 3. To what extent the repressive and racist policy measures of the British were responsible for the national awakening in India. 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 14 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
15 Rise of Nationalism in India GLOSSARY Laissez faire Non-interference of the government in the economic afairs of individuals and society /Free Trade தடையல்ல வணகக க கல டக ameliorate to make better சர கக, மேன டே கக indentured labour a debt bondage worker on a contract ஒப்ந கதல ்ல ளர Orientalist someone from the west studying the language, culture and history of countries in eastren Asia கழதத ை ந டகள கேல ழ, ்ல ட, வர ்ல ற கற்வர Anglicists an authority on or student of English languages and literature ஆஙக கேல ககயம கற்வர proselytizing attempting to convert someone from one religion, belief, or opinion to another தம ேலற றம மய polytheism the belief in or worship of more than one god ்் கத நமப கடக vernacular language commonly spoken by the people of a particular a region or a particular group மதை கேல 12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 15 1/6/2022 2:33:03 AM www.tntextbooks.in
16 Introduction By the last decade of the nineteenth century, there was conspicuous resentment against moderate politics within the Indian National Congress. Tis feeling of resentment eventually evolved into a new trend, referred to as the ‘Extremist’ trend. Te extremist or what we may call radical or militant group was critical of the moderates for their cautious approach and the “mendicant policy” of appealing to the British by way of prayers and petitions. Tis form of militancy developed under the leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in the Punjab. Te primary reasons for the rise of this trend were: factionalism in the Congress, frustration with the moderate politics, anger against Lord Curzon for dividing Bengal.Te partition of Bengal in 1905 – a prime example of the British divide and rule policy – acted as the catalyst for the growth of anti-colonial swadeshi nationalism. Te partition plan was frst opposed by moderates but as the movement progressed, diferent techniques were improvised for the Swadeshi campaign. Swadeshi constructive programme included boycott of foreign goods and government-administered educational institutions. Te Swadeshi movement (1905–1911) is the most important phase of the Indian National Movement in the pre-Gandhian era, as, during the course of the movement, the character of the Indian national movement changed signifcantly in terms of the stated objectives, methods and in its social base. Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 2 UNIT Learning Objectives „„ To understand the nature and signifcance of the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal „„ To know the repressive measures of the government of British India „„ To trace the events leading up to the Surat Split (in the Indian National Congress) in 1907 „„ To familiarise ourselves with revolutionary extremism in Bengal „„ To acquaint ourselves with the Swadeshi Struggles in Tamil Nadu „„ To examine the role played by V.O. Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania Siva and Subramania Bharati Swadeshi Movement 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 16 02-01-2023 16:56:20 www.tntextbooks.in
17 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Te mass base of the movement was expanded by exposing the problems of various social groups under the British governance and the underlying commonality in their lives - that is colonial exploitation. For the frst time, in the history of Indian national movement, women, workers, peasants, and marginalised groups were exposed to modern nationalist ideas and politics. It was a period when the elite made a conscious efort to address the common people, calling upon them to join politics. Te other prominent development during the Swadeshi period was the growth of the vernacular press (newspapers published in Indian languages) in various parts of India. Te nationalistic tone of the vernacular press became more pronounced during this time. Te role played by Swadesamitran in Tamil Nadu, Kesari in Maharashtra, Yugantar in Bengal are a few examples. As the movement gained support among the people, the government passed a series of repressive Acts such as the Public Meetings Act (1907), the Explosive Substance Act (1908), the Newspaper (Incitement and Ofence Act 1908) and the Indian Press Act (1910) to crush the nationalistic activities of any nature. One such measure was recording and monitoring of public meetings which were considered a matter of judicial scrutiny. (Shorthand was used by the police for the frst time to record political speeches.) In this lesson, while discussing the Bengal as well as national scenarios, the Swadeshi Campaigns conducted in Tamil nadu with particular focus on the role played by V.O. Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania Siva and Subramania Bharati. 2.1 Partition of Bengal On January 6, 1899, Lord Curzon was appointed the new Governor General and Viceroy of India. Tis was a time when British unpopularity was increasing due to the impact of recurring famine and the plague. Curzon did little to change the opinion of the educated Indian class. Instead of engaging with the nationalist intelligentsia, he implemented a series of repressive measures. For instance, he reduced the number of elected Indian representatives in the Calcutta Corporation (1899). Te University Act of 1904 brought the Calcutta University under the direct control of the government. Te Ofcial Secrets Act (1904) was amended to curb the nationalist tone of Indian newspapers. Finally, he ordered partition of Bengal in 1905. Te partition led to widespread protest all across India, starting a new phase of the Indian national movement. Lord Curzon Bengal (1905 - 1911) BengalEastern Assam Bengal (1905 - 1911) Area (Km 2 )366,69254916.67Population (mn)Muslims (mn)Muslims % Eastern Bengal & Assam(1905 - 1911) Area (Km 2 )275,938311858.06Population (mn)Muslims (mn)Muslims % Bengal Not to Scale EWNS 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 17 02-01-2023 16:56:20 www.tntextbooks.in
18 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement balancing out each other. Tere was a conscious attempt on the part of British administration to woo the Muslim population in Bengal. In his speech at Dhaka, in Februry 1904, Curzon assured the Muslims that in the new province of East Bengal, Muslims would enjoy a unity, which they had never enjoyed since the days of old Muslim rule. Te partition, instead of dividing the Bengali people along the religious line, united them. Perhaps the British administration had underestimated the growing feeling of Bengali identity among the people, which cut across caste, class, religion and regional barriers.By the end of the nineteenth century, a strong sense of Bengali unity had developed among large sections in the society. Bengali language had acquired literary status with Rabindranath Tagore as the central fgure. Te growth of regional language newspapers played a role in building the narrative of solidarity. Similarly, recurring famines, unemployment, and a slump in the economic growth generated an anti-colonial feeling. 2.2 Anti-Partition Movement Both the militants and the moderates were critical of the partition of Bengal ever since it was announced in December 1903. But the anti-partition response by leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray remained restricted to prayers and petitions. Te objective was limited to infuencing public opinion in England against the partition. However, despite this widespread resentment, partition of Bengal was ofcially declared on 19 July 1905. Bengal Presidency as an administrative unit was indeed of unmanageable in size; the necessity of partition was being discussed since the 1860s. Te scheme of partition was revived in March 1890. In Assam, when Curzon went on a tour, he was requested by the European planters to make a maritime outlet closer to Calcutta to reduce their dependence on the Assam–Bengal railways. Following this, in December 1903, Curzon drew up a scheme in his Minutes on Territorial Redistribution of India, which was later modifed and published as the Risely Papers. Te report gave two reasons in support of partition: Relief of Bengal and the improvement of Assam. Te report, however, concealed information on how the plan was originally devised for the convenience of British ofcials and the European businessmen.From December 1903 and 1905 this initial idea of transferring or reshufing some areas from Bengal was changed to a full-fedged plan of partition. Te Bengal was to be divided into two provinces. Te new Eastern Bengal and Assam were to include the divisions of Chittagong, Dhaka, parts of Rajshahi hills of Tippera, Assam province and Malda. Aimed at Hindu Muslim Divide Te intention of Curzon was to suppress the political activities against the British rule in Bengal and to create a Hindu–Muslim divide. Te government intentionally ignored alternative proposals presented by the civil servants, particularly the idea of dividing Bengal on linguistic basis. Curzon rejected this proposal as this would further consolidate the position of the Bengali politicians. Curzon was adamant as he wanted to create a clearly segregated Hindu and Muslim population in the divided Bengal. Curzon, like many before him, knew very well that there was a clear geographical divide along the river Bhagirathi: eastern Bengal dominated by the Muslims, and western Bengal dominated by the Hindus and in the central Bengal and the two communities Aswini Kumar Dutta Bipin Chandra Pal 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 18 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
19 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement of public meetings were organized in towns and villages across Bengal. Religious festivals such as the Durga Pujas were utilized to invoke the idea of boycott. The day Bengal was officially partitioned – 16 Oct 1905 – was declared as a day of mourning. Thousands of people took bath in the Ganga and marched on the streets of Calcutta singing Bande Mataram. 2.3 Boycott and Swadeshi Movements in Bengal (1905–1911) Such eforts, both organized and spontaneous, laid the foundation for a sustained campaign against the British. Te boycott and swadeshi were always interlinked to each other and part of a wider plan to make India self-sufcient. G. Subramaniam, a nationalist leader from Madras, succinctly explained the aim of the swadeshi movement as ‘a revolt against their state of dependence…in all branches of their national life’. In the words of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, ‘the swadeshi movement is not only for the improvement of our industry but for an allround enhancement of our national life ....’ As the movement progressed, diferent defnitions of Swadeshi appeared. However, for the larger part, the movement of Swadeshi and Boycott was practiced as an anti-colonial political agitation and not as a viable method to achieve dignity and freedom in life, a defnition which would be later infused with the entry of Mahatma Gandhi. (a) Constructive Swadeshi Te constructive Swadeshi programmes largely stressed upon self-help. It focused on building alternative institutions of self-governance that would operate entirely free G. Subramaniam With the failure to stop the partition of Bengal and the pressure exerted by the radical leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Aswini Kumar Dutta, and Aurobindo Ghose, the moderate leaders were forced to rethink their strategy, and look for new techniques of protest. Boycott of British goods was one such method, which afer much debate was accepted by the moderate leadership of the Indian National Congress. So, for the frst time, the moderates went beyond their conventional political methods. It was decided, at a meeting in Calcutta on 17 July 1905, to extend the protest to the masses. In the same meeting, Surendranath Banerjee gave a call for the boycott of British goods and institutions. On 7 August, at another meeting at the Calcutta Town Hall, a formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made. However, the agenda of Swadeshi movement was still restricted to securing an annulment of the partition and the moderates were very much against utilizing the campaign to start a full-scale passive resistance. The militant nationalists, on the other hand, were in favour of extending the movement to other provinces too and to launch a full-fledged mass struggle. Spread of the Movement Besides the organized efforts of the leaders, there were spontaneous reactions against the partition of Bengal. Students, in particular, came out in large numbers. Reacting to the increased role of the students in the anti-partition agitation, British officials threatened to withdraw the scholarships and grants to those who participated in programmes of direct action. In response to this, a call was given to boycott official educational institutions and it was decided that efforts were to be made to open national schools. Thousands Aurobindo Ghose 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 19 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
20 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Te idea of education in vernacular language made its appearance much before the swadeshi movement with the foundation of Dawn Society by Satish Chandra Mukherjee in 1902. On 5 November 1905, at the initiative of the Dawn Society, the National Council of Education was formed. In August 1906, Bengal National College and a School were founded. A passionate appeal was made by Satish Chandra to the students to come out of ‘institutions of slavery.’ Such eforts, however, failed to attract many due to the bleak job prospects. (b) Samitis Te other successful method of mass mobilization was the formation of samitis (corps of volunteers). Te samitis were engaged in a range of activities such as physical and moral training of members, philanthropic work during the famines, epidemics, propagation of Swadeshi message during festivals, and organization of indigenous arbitration courts, and schools. By its very nature boycott was passive action and its aim was to refuse to cooperate with the British administration. But these mass mobilization eforts failed to fourish as they could not extend their base among the Muslim peasantry and the “Depressed Classes”. Most of the samitis recruited from the educated middle class and other upper caste Hindus. Besides this, the swadeshi campaigners ofen applied coercive methods, both social and physical. For instance, social boycott of those purchasing foreign goods was common and taken up through caste associations and other nationalist organisations. (c) Passive Resistance From 1906, when the abrogation of partition was no longer in sight, the Swadeshi Movement took a diferent turn. For many leaders, the movement was to be utilized for propagating the idea of the political independence or Swaraj across India. Te constructive programmes came from British control. It also laid emphasis on the need for self-strengthening of the people which would help in creating a worthy citizen before the launch of political agitations. Rabindranath Tagore was one of the central fgures who popularised such ideas through his writings. He outlined the constructive programme of atmashakti (self-help). Tagore called for economic self- development and insisted that education should be provided in swadeshi languages. He also made the call for utilising melas, or fairs, to spread the message of atmashakti. Tis became the creed of the whole of Bengal and swadeshi shops sprang all over the place selling textiles, handlooms, soaps, earthenware, matches and leather goods. Evolution of the idea of Swadeshi During the freedom struggle, the idea of Swadeshi movement was conceptualized frst during 1905 by a string of Congress leaders and then later in the 1920s under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Swadeshi means ‘of one’s own country’. Te origin of the idea can be traced to 1872 when Mahadev Govind Ranade, in a series of lectures in Poona, popularised the idea of Swadeshi. According to Ranade, the goods produced in one’s own country should be given preference even if the use of such goods proved to be less satisfactory. In the 1920s Gandhi gave a new meaning to the idea of Swadeshi by linking it to the fulflment of a duty that all Indians owed to the land of their birth. For Gandhi, Swadeshi did not merely mean the use of what is produced in one’s own country. Gandhi defned Swadeshi in following words “Swadeshi is that spirit in us which restricts us to the use and service of our immediate surroundings to the exclusion of more remote. I should use only things that are produced by my immediate neighbours and serve those industries by making them efcient and complete where they may be found wanting.” Rabindranath Tagore 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 20 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
21 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Militant nationalism also changed the nature of political pressure from the earlier force of public opinion of educated Indians to the protesting masses. Despite these changes, the militant nationalism phase retained a continuity from the moderate phase. Tis continuity was evident in the inability to transcend the peaceful method of struggle and for the most parts militant nationalism remained tied to the idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to the patriotic sentiments of the people using the religious symbols. Swaraj or Political Independence One of the common goals of the militant leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule. However, the leaders difered on the meaning of Swaraj. For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the Indian control over the administration or rule by the natives, but not total severance of relation with Britain. In Bipin Chandra Pal’s view, Swaraj was the attainment of complete freedom from any foreign rule. Te other point of departure of the militants from the moderates was over the rising extremism in Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra. Unlike the moderates, who were critical of the reckless revolutionaries, militant nationalists were sympathetic towards them. However, the political murders and individual acts of terrorism were not approved of by the militant leaders and they were cautious of associating themselves with the cause of revolutionaries. Te patriotism glued with the assertion of Hindu beliefs was not acceptable to the Muslims. Also much like their predecessors the leaders of the swadeshi movement failed to penetrate the larger section of the society. By 1908 militant nationalism was on the decline. Te Surat split of 1907 was another contributing factor to this decline. under heavy criticism from Aurobindo Ghose, Bipin Chandra Pal, and other militant leaders. Under their new direction, the swadeshi agenda included boycott of foreign goods; boycott of government schools and colleges; boycott of courts; renouncing the titles and relinquishing government services; and recourse to armed struggle if British repression went beyond the limits of endurance. Te programme of this nature required mass mobilization. Using religion, combined with the invocation of a glorious past, became the essential features of their programmes. 2.4 Militant Nationalism As pointed out earlier, thanks to the campaigns conducted by Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal, ofen referred to as the Lal–Bal–Pal triumvirate, Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the epicentres of militant nationalism during the Swadeshi phase. Aurobindo Ghose was another infuential fgure in the militant leadership. Te nationalism of this form was more assertive compared to the early Indian nationalism. Triumvirate : Lal–Bal–Pal Both the groups, moderate and militant, were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings of the British rule. Te moderates, however, worked under the belief that the British rule in India could be reformed by convincing the rulers through representation and petitioning. Te militant nationalist, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the colonial rulers would never be amenable to reason, as they would not like to give up the advantages of an empire. 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 21 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
22 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Pherozeshah Mehta group sought removal of those items from the agenda. In order to counter Mehta’s manoeuvering, the militants decided to oppose the election of Rash Behari Gosh as president. The session ended in chaos. The Indian National Congress, born in December 1885, was now split into two groups – militant and moderate. The Congress which emerged after the Surat split was more loyal to the British than they were before. The new Congress, minus the militants, came to be known as Mehta Congress and the 1908 session of the Congress was attended only by the moderates who reiterated their loyalty to the Raj. The politics of militants, on the other hand, could not crystallize into a new political organization. The primary reason was the repressive measures of the government by putting all the prominent leaders in jail. 2.5 Revolutionary Extremism Around 1908, the decline of the militant nationalists and the rise of revolutionary activities marked an important shif from non-violent methods to violent action. It also meant a shif from mass-based action to elite response to the British rule. In Bengal, revolutionary terrorism had developed even earlier; around the 1870s, when the akharas or gymnasiums were setup in various places to develop what Swami Vivekananda had described as strong muscles and nerves of steel. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel, Anandmath also had a signifcant impact. Anandmath was widely read by the revolutionaries in Bengal. Te Bande Mataram song, which is part of the novel, became the anthem of the swadeshi movement. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Surat Split Congress Split at Surat The tension between the militants and the moderates became more pronounced with the appointment of Lord Minto as the new Viceroy to India in 1906. As the tension was rising between the two groups, a split was avoided, in the 1906 Calcutta session, by accepting demands of moderate leaders and electing Dadabhai Naoroji as president. Most of the moderates, led by Pherozeshah Mehta, were defeated in the election. The militants managed to pass four resolutions on Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education, and Self-Government. The next session of Congress was originally planned to be held in Poona, considered to be a stronghold of the militants. Fearing a repeat of the Calcutta session, the moderates shifted the venue to Surat. The militants proposed Lala Lajpat Rai’s name for the next Congress presidency opposing the moderate’s candidate Rash Behari Ghosh. Lala Lajpat Rai, however, turned down the offer to avoid the split. The matter finally boiled down to the question of retaining the four resolutions that were passed in the Calcutta session in 1906. The Pherozeshah Mehta 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 22 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
23 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Khudiram Bose Prafulla Chaki A conspiracy was hatched there to kill Douglas Kingsford, notorious for his cruel ways of dealing with the swadeshi agitators. Two young revolutionaries - 18-year-old Khudiram Bose and 19-year-old Prafulla Chaki – were entrusted with the task of carrying out the killing. On 30 April 1908, they mistakenly threw a bomb on a carriage, that, instead of killing Kingsford, killed two English women. Prafulla Chaki committed suicide and Khudiram Bose was arrested and hanged for the murder. Aurobindo Ghose, along with his brother Barinder Kumar Ghose and thirty-fve other comrades, were arrested. Chittaranjan Das took up the case. It came to be known as the Alipore Bomb case.Te judgement observed that there was no evidence to show that Aurobindo Ghose was involved in any conspiracy against the British rule. Ghose was acquitted of all the charges. Barindra Ghose and Ullaskar Dutt were given the death penalty (later commuted to the transportation of life), with the rest being condemned to transportation for life. Te year-long hearing of Alipore Bomb case made a great impact and portrayed the nationalist revolutionaries as heroes to the general public. Trial and the Aftermath Afer his acquittal, Aurobindo Ghose took to a spiritual path and shifed his base to Pondicherry, where he stayed until his death in 1950. Te idea of bringing an armed revolution, envisaged by Aurobindo Ghose, never materialized. Te reason for the gradual decline in the revolutionary activities in Bengal was a combination of government repression and alienation from the people. During the Swadeshi movement three factors contributed to the upsurge in the individual acts of violence: „ Te apolitical constructive programmes had little acceptance among the youth who was growing impatient under the repressive foreign rule. „ Te failure of the militant nationalists to lead the young people into a long-term mass movement also contributed to the growth of individual action. „ Te revolutionary action was part of an efort towards the symbolic recovery of Indian manhood, which the revolutionaries believed was ofen challenged and looked down upon by the British.Such actions, however, did not lead to any organised revolutionary movement as was the case in Russia. Te revolutionary actions were mostly attempts to assassinate specifc oppressive British ofcers. (a) Alipore Bomb Case In Bengal, the story of revolutionary terrorism begins in 1902 with the formation of many secret societies. Most notable among them all was the Anushilan Samity of Calcutta, founded by Jatindernath Banerjee and Barindarkumar Ghose, brother of Aurobindo Ghose. Similarly, the Dhaka Anushilan Samity was born in 1906 through the initiative of Pulin Behari Das. Tis was followed by the launch of the revolutionary weekly Yugantar . Te Calcutta Anushilan Samity soon started its activities and the frst swadeshi dacoity, to raise funds, was organised in Rangpur in August 1906. In the same year, Hemchandra Kanungo went abroad to get military training in Paris. Afer his return to India in 1908, he established a bomb factory along with a religious school at a garden house in Maniktala. In the same garden house, young inmates underwent various forms of physical training, reading classic Hindu text, and reading literature on revolutionary movement across the world. 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 23 02-01-2023 16:56:21 www.tntextbooks.in
24 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement (a) Development of Vernacular Oratory Initially, the movement was more of a reaction to the partition of Bengal and regular meetings were held to protest the partition. The speakers, in such meetings, spoke mostly in the vernacular language to an audience that included students, lawyers, and labourers at that time. The shift from English oratory to vernacular oratory was a significant development of this time, which had a huge impact on the mass politics in Tamil Nadu.Swadeshi meetings at the Marina beach in Madras were a regular sight. Te Moore Market complex in Madras was another venue utilised for such gatherings. During the period (1905-1907) there are police reports calling students dangerous and their activities as seditious. Europeans in public places were greeted by the students with shouts of Vande Mataram. In 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal came to Madras and his speeches on the Madras Beach electrifed the audience and won new converts to the nationalist cause. Te visit had a profound impact all over Tamil Nadu. Te public speeches in the Tamil language created an audience which was absent during the formative years of the political activities in Tamil Nadu. (b) V.O.C. and Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) Te Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu came to national attention in 1906 when V.O. Chidambaram mooted the idea of launching a swadeshi shipping venture in opposition to the monopoly of the British in navigation through the coast. In 1906, V.O.C. registered a joint stock company called Te Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh, divided into 40,000 shares of Rs. 25 each. V.O. Chidambaram Beside this, revolutionary terrorism sufered from certain social limitations too as most of the revolutionaries were drawn from the three upper castes – Brahmin, Kayastha, and Vaishya. (b) British Repression In December 1908 the Morley-Minto constitutional reforms were announced. The moderates welcomed the reforms. However, they soon realised that there was hardly any shift of power. In fact, measures taken by Minto were highly divisive as it institutionalised communal electorates creating Hindu-Muslim divide. Beside this, the colonial government also introduced certain repressive laws such as: „ Te Newspapers (Incitement to Ofence) Act, 1908. Tis act empowered the magistrate to confscate press property which published objectionable material making it difcult to publish anything critical of British rule. „ Indian Press Act 1910 made it mandatory for publishers and the printers to deposit a security that could be seized in case they printed ‘obnoxious material’. „ Te Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act allowed summary trails and also imposed the prohibition of ‘association dangerous to the public peace’. Even with the widespread repression, the charm of revolutionary action never disappeared from the Indian national movement. Te centre of activities moved from Bengal to Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. 2.6 Swadeshi Campaign in Tamil Nadu Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu, notably in Tirunelveli district, generated a lot of attention and support. While the Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu had an all India favour, with collective anger against the British rule remaining the common thread, it was also underpinned by Tamil - pride and consciousness. Tere was a deep divide in the Tamilnadu congress between the moderates and the extremists. 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 24 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
25 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement meetings were attended by thousands of people. These public gatherings were closely monitored by the administration.In 1908, the abject working and living conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted the attention of V.O.C and Siva. In the next few days, both the leaders addressed the mill workers. In March 1908, the workers of the Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went on strike. It was one of the earliest organised labour agitations in India. Te strike of the mill workers was fully backed by the nationalist newspapers. Te mill owners, however, did not budge and was supported by the government which had decided to suppress the strike. To further increase the pressure on the workers, the leaders were prohibited from holding any meetings in Tuticorin. Finally, the mill owners decided to negotiate with the workers and concede their demands.Tis victory of the workers generated excitement among the militants in Bengal and it was hailed by the newspapers in Bengal. For instance, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Matram hailed the strike as “forging a bond between educated class and the masses, which is the frst great step towards swaraj…. Every victory of Indian labour is a victory for the nation….” (d) Subramania Bharati: Poet and Nationalist Te growth of newspapers, both in English and Tamil language, aided the swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu. G. Subramaniam was one of the frst among the leaders to use newspapers to spread the nationalist message across a larger audience. Subramaniam, along with fve others, founded Te Hindu (in English) and Swadesamitran (which was the frst ever Tamil daily). In 1906 a book was published by Subramaniam to condemn the British actions during the Congress Conference in Barsal. Subramania Bharati Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese and other Asian nationals. V.O.C. purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe. When in the other parts of India, the response to Swadeshi was limited to symbolic gestures of making candles and bangles, the idea of forging a Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was really spectacular. V.O.C invoked the rich history of the region and the maritime glory of India’s past and used it as a reference point to galvanize the public opinion in favour of a Swadeshi venture in the sea. Te initiative of V.O.C. was lauded by the national leaders. Lokmanya Tilak wrote about the success of the Swadeshi Navigation Company in his papers Kesari and Mahratta . Aurobindo Ghose also lauded the Swadeshi eforts and helped to promote the sale of shares of the company. Te major shareholders included Pandithurai and Haji Fakir Mohamed. V.O.C. Ship Te initial response of the British administration was to ignore the Swadeshi company. As patronage for Swadeshi Company increased, the European ofcials exhibited blatant bias and racial partiality against the Swadeshi steamship. (c) The Coral Mill Strike After attending the session of the Indian National Congress at Surat, V.O.C. on his return decided to work on building a political organisation. While looking for an able orator, he came across Subramania Siva, a swadeshi preacher. From February to March 1907, both the leaders addressed meetings almost on a daily basis at the beach in Tuticorin, educating the people about swadeshi and the boycott campaign. The 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 25 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
26 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Te local public, angered over the arrest of the prominent swadeshi leaders, reacted violently. Shops were closed in a general show of defance. Te municipality building and the police station in Tirunelveli were set on fre. More importantly, the mill workers came out in large numbers to protest the arrest of swadeshi leaders. Afer a few incidents of confrontation with the protesting crowd, the police open fred, and four people were killed.On 7 July 1908, V.O.C. and Subramania Siva were found guilty and imprisoned on charges of sedition. Siva was awarded a sentence of 10 years of transportation for his seditious speech whereas V.O.C. got a life term (20 years) for abetting him. V.O.C. was given another life sentence for his own seditious speech. Tis draconian sentence reveals how seriously the Tirunelveli agitation was viewed by the government.In the afermath of this incident, the repression of the British administration was not limited to the arrest of a few leaders. In fact, people who had actively participated in the protest were also punished and a punitive tax was imposed on the people of Tirunelveli and Tuticorin. Swadesamitran extensively reported nationalist activities, particularly the news regarding V.O.C. and his speeches in Tuticorin. Subramania Bharati became the sub-editor of Swadesamitran around the time (1904) when Indian nationalism was looking for a fresh direction. Bharati was also editing Chakravartini , a Tamil monthly devoted to the cause of Indian women.Two events had a signifcant impact on Subramania Bharati. A meeting in 1905 with Sister Nivedita, an Irish woman and a disciple of Vivekananda, whom he referred to as Gurumani (teacher), greatly inspired his nationalist ideals. Te churning within the Congress on the nature of engagement with the British rule was also a contributory factor. As discussed earlier in this lesson, the militants ridiculed the mendicancy of the moderates who wanted to follow the constitutional methods. Bharati had little doubt, in his mind, that the British rule had to be challenged with a fresh approach and methods applied by the militant nationalists appealed to him more. For instance, his fascination with Tilak grew afer the Surat session of the Congress in 1907. He translated into Tamil Tilak’s Tenets of the New Party and a booklet on the Madras militants’ trip to the Surat Congress in 1907. Bharati edited a Tamil weekly India , which became the voice of the radicals. (e) Arrest and imprisonment of V.O.C. and Subramania Siva On March 9, 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal was released from prison afer serving a six-month jail sentence. Te swadeshi leaders in Tamil Nadu planned to celebrate the day of his release as ‘Swarajya Day’ in Tirunelveli. Te local administration refused permission. V.O.C., Subramania Siva and Padmanabha Iyengar defed the ban and went ahead. Tey were arrested on March 12, 1908, on charges of sedition. Subramania Siva Excerpts from the Judgment in the case of King Emperor versus V.O.C. and Subramania Siva (4 November 1908).“It seems to me that sedition at any time is a most serious ofense. It is true that the case is the frst of its kind in the Presidency, but the present condition of other Presidencies where the crime seems to have secured a foothold would seem to indicate that light sentences of imprisonment of a few months or maybe a year or two are instances of misplaced leniency. ...Te frst object of a sentence is that it shall be deterrent not to the criminal alone but to others who feel any inclination to follow his example. Here we have to deal with a campaign of sedition which nearly ended in revolt. Te accused are morally responsible for all the lives lost in quelling the riots that ensured on their arrest”. 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 26 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
27 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement administration grew more suspicious with the Pondicherry groups and their activities. Such an atmosphere further scuttled the possibility of nationalistic propaganda and their activities in Tamil Nadu. As a fall-out of the repressive measure taken by the colonial government, the nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu entered a period of lull and some sort of revival happened only with the Home Rule Movement in 1916. Summary „„ Te swadeshi campaigns in the wake of partition of Bengal are watershed moments in the history of anti-colonial struggles. „„ Besides building new techniques of political propaganda, the movement also gave impetus to carry on a sustained resistance even in the Gandhian phase of freedom movement. „„ It was also a communication revolution as the Swadeshi movement resulted in a shif from English to swadeshi language (regional language) as the medium of political propaganda. „„ Te swadeshi movement also led to the emergence of youth who remained fascinated by the idea of taking to violence. „„ The swadeshi atmosphere richly contributed to an interest in history, literature, and poetry on patriotism and nationalism in vernacular languages. „„ Te militants, however, failed to connect the nationalist slogans with larger economic grievances and the mass contact programmes, as the British unleashed violence against the nationalists. „„ Te use of religion and religious symbols to mobilize the Hindus alienated Muslims. (f) Ashe Murder Repression of the Swadeshi eforts in Tuticorin and the subsequent arrest and humiliation of the swadeshi leaders generated anger among the youth. A plan was hatched to avenge the Tirunelveli event. A sustained campaign in the newspapers about the repressive measures of the British administration also played a decisive role in building people’s anger against the administration.In June 1911, the collector of Tirunelveli, Robert Ashe, was shot dead at Maniyachi Railway station by Vanchinathan. Born in the Travancore state in 1880, he was employed as a forest guard at Punalur in the then Travancore state. He was one of the members of a radical group called Bharata Mata Association. Te aim of the association was to kill the European ofcers and inspire Indians to revolt, which they believed would eventually lead to Swaraj. Vanchinathan was trained in the use of a revolver, as part of the mission, by V.V. Subramaniam in Pondicherry. Afer shooting Ashe at the Maniyachi Junction, Vanchinathan shot himself with the same pistol. The aftermath of the Assassination During the course of the trial, the British government was able to establish that V.V.S and other political exiles in Pondicherry were in close and active association with the accused in the Ashe murder conspiracy. Te colonial Vanchinathan V.V. Subramaniam 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 27 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
28 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 4. Which one of the following is correctly paired? (a) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee - Ana ndmath (b) G. Subramaniam - Da wn Society (c) Lord Minto - Te U niversity Act of 1904 (d) Epicentre of militant nationalism - Madra s 5. Anushilan Samity of Calcutta was founded by (a) Pulin Behari Das(b) Hemachandra Kanungo (c) Jatindernath Banerjee and Barindar Kumar Ghose(d) Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki 6. Assertion (A): 16 October 1905 was declared as a day of mourning. Reason (R): Tat day Bengal was ofcially divided into two provinces. (a) A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. (b) A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.(c) A is correct and R is wrong.(d) A is wrong and R is correct. 7. Assertion (A): V.O. Chidambaram established a Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company. Reason (R): He wanted to oppose the monopoly of the British in navigation through the coast. (a) A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b) A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A(c) A is correct and R is wrong(d) A is wrong and R is correct 8. Which of the following statement is not true about Subramania Bharati? (a) Bharati was the sub–editor of Swadesamitran. (b) He translated Tilak’s Tenets of the New Party into Tamil. (c) Bharati’s Gurumani was Swami Vivekananda. (d) He was editor of a woman’s magazine by name Chakravartini . I. Choose the correct answer 1. Whose name was proposed as president by militant nationalists for the surat session of the Congress? (a) Aurobindo Ghose (b) Dad abhai Naoroji (c) Pherozesha Mehta (d) La la Lajpat Rai 2. Consider the following statements. (i) Te partition of Bengal in 1905 was the most striking example of the British divide and rule policy. (ii) In the Calcutta meeting 1905, Surendranath Banerjea gave a call for the boycott of British goods and institutions. (iii) On 7 August 1905 at Town Hall meeting in Calcutta, a formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made.Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) (i) only (b) (i) an d (iii) only (c) (i) and (ii) only (d) Al l of the above. 3. Match List I and List II and select answer with the help of the codes given below. List I Lis t II A. Indian Press Act 1910 - 1. Se lf-rule B. Dawn Society - 2. a re volt against their state of dependence C. Swaraj - 3. cru shed the nationalistic activities D. Swadeshi - 4. Te N ational Council of education Codes A B C D (a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 1 2 3 4 (c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 1 2 4 3 EXERCISE Q.R.Code 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 28 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
29 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement IV. Answer the following in detail 1. Attempt an account of Swadeshi movement in Tamilnadu. 2. Write about the role played by V.O. Chidambaram in Indian National Movement. V. Activity 1. Conduct a discourse on the vision of Poet Subramaia Bharati. 2. Te Tamil movie Kappalotiya Tamilan be arranged to be screened. REFERENCES 1. Bipan Chandra, etal. India’s Struggle for Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2016. 2. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Pearson, New Delhi, 2018. 3. Sekhar Bandopadhyay, From Plassey to Partition and Afer: A History of Modern India, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, 2009. 4. A.R. Venkatachalapathy, 'In Search of Ashe, 'Ecnomic & Political Weekly, 9 Janauary 2009. II. Write brief answers 1. What was called the mendicant policy of the Moderates? 2. How did M.G. Ranade explain the idea of Swadeshi? 3. Identify the leaders of the epicenters of militant nationalism in British India 4. Why was militant nationalism was on the decline by 1908? 5. What were the repressive measures adopted by the colonial government to crush the nationalist movements? III. Write short answer 1. Give an account of the proceedings of Surat session that ended in the split of the Congress. 2. Explain the reasons for the spurt in individual acts of violence during the Swadeshi movement. 3. Highlight the methods used by samitis for mass mobilization. 4. What do you know of Coral Mill Strike of 1908? 5. Outline the essence of the Alipore Bomb Case. 6. Write about the swadeshi venture of V.O.C. 7. Why was Collector Ashe killed by Vanchinathan. GLOSSARY factionalism diference of opinion or disagreement between two groups within a political organization. உட் ச பசல intelligentsia highly educated or the intellectual elite of a society அறவ ஜவ ள / ற்றநேதார annulment invalidation, nullifcation நக்ம, ஒழபப, ரதத ச Swadeshi made in one’s own country தனத நா டல உற்தத ச ச்ா ரள Boycott refusal to take part in an activity or to buy a foreign product க்ணபப triumvirate a group of three persons dominating or holding control பச் ரம தலைவ ்ள seditious Inciting people to rebel against the authority of a state அரச க எதரா / ஆ ச எதரபப punitive tax a tax intended as punishment தண் லன வர 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 29 02-01-2023 16:56:22 www.tntextbooks.in
30 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Web URL: https://www.euratlas.net/history/index.html ICT CORNER Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code. Step - 2 Click on ‘ World History’ and Select ‘ India’ in menu Step - 3 Click the topics one by one and explore the maps (Ex.1903) *Pictures are indicative only*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page T rough this activity you will know about the historical and Political Maps of India Step1 Step2 Step3 12th_History_EM_Unit_2.indd 30 02-01-2023 16:56:23 www.tntextbooks.in
31 Introduction Several events that preceded the First World War had a bearing on Indian nationalist politics. In 1905 Japan had defeated Russia. In 1908 the Young Turks and in 1911 the Chinese nationalists, using Western methods and ideas, had overthrown their governments. Along with the First World War these events provide the background to Indian nationalism during 1916 and 1920. Europe was the main theatre of the War, though fghting took place in others parts of the world as well. Te British recruited a vast contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa and West Asia. Afer the War, the soldiers came back with new ideas which had an impact on the Indian society. India had to cough up around £ 367 million, of which £ 229 million as direct cash and the rest through loans to ofset the war expenses. India also sent war materials to the value £ 250 million. Tis caused enormous economic distress, triggering discontent amongst Indians. Te nationalist politics was in low key, since the Indian National Congress had split into moderates and extremists, while the Muslim league supported British interests in war. In 1916 “the extremists” led by Tilak had gained control of Congress. Tis led to the rise of Home Rule Movement in India under the leadership of Dr Annie Besant in South India and Tilak in Western India. Te Congress was reunited during the war. Te strength of Indian nationalism was increased by the agreement signed between Hindus and Muslims, known as the Lucknow Pact, in 1916. During the War, western revolutionary ideas were infuencing the radical nationalists and so the British tried to suppress the national movement by passing repressive acts. Of all the repressive acts, the most draconic was the Rowlatt Act. Tis act was strongly criticized by the Indian leaders and they organised meetings to protest against the act. Te international events too had its impact on India, such as the revolution in Russia. Te defeat of Turkey Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 3 UNIT Learning Objectives To acquire knowledge in „„ Te conditions created by World War I: Moderates and Militants putting up a united struggle against the British through the Home Rule Leagues of Tilak and Annie Besant. „„ Repressive Measures of the British: Enactment of Defence of India Act. „„ Lucknow Pact facilitating Hindu-Muslim unity. „„ Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Hindu-Muslim solidarity in Khilafat Movement. „„ Te impact of World War I and Russian Revolution on the Indian Labour Movement 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 31 02-01-2023 15:39:43 www.tntextbooks.in
32 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement in World War I and the severe terms of the Treaty of Sevres signed thereafer undermined the position of Sultan of Turkey as Khalifa. Out of the resentment was born the Khilafat Movement. India and Indians had taken an active part in the War believing that Britain would reward India's loyalty. But only disappointment was in store. Tus the War had multiple efects on Indian society, economy and polity. In this lesson we discuss the role played by Home Rule League, factors leading to the signing of Lucknow Pact and its provisions, the repressive measures of the British culminating in Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, the Khilafat Movement and the rise of an organized labour movement. 3.1 All India Home Rule League We may recall that many foreigners such as A.O. Hume had played a pivotal role in our freedom movement in the early stages. Dr Annie Besant played a similar role in the early part of the twentieth century. Besant was Irish by birth and had been active in the Irish home rule, fabian socialist and birth control movements while in Britain. She joined the Teosophical Society, and came to India in 1893. She founded the Central Hindu College in Benaras (later upgraded as Benaras Hindu University by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1916). With the death of H. S. Olcott in 1907, Besant succeeded him as the international president of the Teosophical Society. She was actively spreading the theosophical ideas from its George Arundale Annie Besant headquarters, Adyar in Chennai, and gained the support of a number of educated followers such as Jamnadas Dwarkadas, George Arundale, Shankerlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, C.P. Ramaswamy and B.P. Wadia. In 1914 was when Britain announced its entry in First World War, it was claimed that it fghting for freedom and democracy. Indian leaders believed and supported the British war eforts. Soon they were disillusioned as there was no change in the British attitude towards India. Moreover, split into moderate and extremist wings, the Indian National Congress was not strong enough to press for further political reforms towards self-rule. Te Muslim League was looked upon suspiciously by the British once the Sultan of Turkey entered the War supporting the Central powers. It was in this backdrop that Besant entered into Indian Politics. She started a weekly Te Commonweal in 1914. Te weekly focussed on religious liberty, national education, social and political reforms. She published a book How India Wrought for Freedom in 1915. In this book she asserted that the beginnings of national consciousness are deeply embedded in its ancient past. She gave the call, 'Te moment of England's difculty is the moment of India's opportunity' and wanted Indian leaders to press for reforms. She toured England and made many speeches in the cause of India's freedom. She also tried to form an Indian party in the Parliament but was unsuccessful. Her visit, however, aroused sympathy for India. On her return, she started a daily newspaper New India on July 14, 1915. She revealed her concept of self-rule in a speech at Bombay: “I mean by self-government that the country shall have a government by councils, elected by the people, and responsible to the House”. She organized public meetings and conferences to spread the idea and demanded that India be granted self-government on the lines of the White colonies afer the War. On September 28, 1915, Besant made a formal declaration that she would start the Home Rule League Movement for India with objectives 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 32 02-01-2023 15:39:43 www.tntextbooks.in
33 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement Tilak popularised the demand for Home Rule through his lectures. Te popularity of his League was confned to Maharashtra and Karnataka but claimed a membership of 14,000 in April 1917 and 32,000 by early 1918. On 23 July 1916 on his 60th birthday Tilak was arrested for propagating the idea of Home Rule. (b) Besant's Home Rule League Finding no signs from the Congress, Besant herself inaugurated the Home Rule League at Madras in September 1916. Its branches were established at Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras, Mathura, Calicut and Ahmednagar. She made an extensive tour and spread the idea of Home Rule. She declared that "the price of India's loyalty is India's Freedom". Moderate congressmen who were dissatisfed with the inactivity of the Congress joined the Home Rule League. Te popularity of the League can be gauged from the fact that Jawaharlal Nehru, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, B. Chakravarti, Jitendralal Banerji, Satyamurti and Khaliquzzaman were taking up the membership of the League.As Besant’s Home Rule Movement became very popular in Madras, the Government of Madras decided to suppress it. Students were barred from attending its meetings. In June 1917 Besant and her associates, B.P. Wadia and George Arundale were interred in Ootacamund. The government’s repression strengthened the supporters, and with renewed determination they began to resist. To support Besant, Sir S. Subramaniam renounced his knighthood. Many leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Surendranath Banerjea who had earlier stayed away from the movement enlisted themselves. At the AICC meeting convened on 28 July 1917 Tilak advocated the use of civil disobedience if they were not released. Jamnadas Dwarkadas and Shankerlal Banker, on the orders of Gandhi, collected one thousand signatures willing to defy the interment orders and march to Besant’s place of detention. Due to the on the lines of the Irish Home Rule League. Te moderates did not like the idea of establishing another separate organisation. She too realised that the sanction of the Congress party was necessary for her movement to be successful.In December 1915 due to the eforts of Tilak and Besant, the Bombay session of Congress suitably altered the constitution of the Congress party to admit the members from the extremist section. In the session she insisted on the Congress taking up the Home Rule League programme before September 1916, failing which she would organize the Home Rule League on her own.In 1916, two Home Rule Movements were launched in the country: one under Tilak and the other under Besant with their spheres of activity well demarcated. Te twin objectives of the Home Rule League were the establishment of Home Rule for India in British Empire and arousing in the Indian masses a sense of pride for the Motherland. (a) Tilak Home Rule League Tilak Home Rule League was set up at the Bombay Provincial conference held at Belgaum in April 1916. It League was to work in Maharashtra (including Bombay city), Karnataka, the Central Provinces and Berar. Tilak's League was organised into six branches and Annie Besant's League was given the rest of India. Home Rule: It refers to a self-government granted by a central or regional government to its dependent political units on condition that their people should remain politically loyal to it. Tis was a common feature in the ancient Roman Empire and the modern British Empire. In Ireland the Home Rule Movement gathered force in the 1880s and a system of Home Rule was established by the Government of Ireland Act (1920) in six counties of Northern Ireland and later by the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) in the remaining 26 counties in the south. 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 33 02-01-2023 15:39:43 www.tntextbooks.in
34 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 3.2 Impact of the War During the years prior to First World War the political condition of the India was in disarray. In order to win over the “Moderates” and the Muslim League with a view to isolating the “Extremists” the British passed the Minto–Morley Reforms in 1909. Te Moderates observed a policy of wait and watch. Te Muslim League welcomed the separate electorate accorded to them. In 1913 a new group of leaders joined the League. Te most prominent among them was Muhammad Ali Jinnah who was already a member of the Congress and demanded more reforms for the Muslims. Te First World War provided the objective conditions for the revolutionary activity in India. Te revolutionaries wanted to make use of Britain's difculty during the War to their advantage. Te Ghadar Movement was one of its outcomes. Te First World War had a major impact on the freedom movement. Initially, the British didn't care for Indian support. Once the war theatre moved to West Asia and Africa the British were forced to look for Indian support. In this context Indian leaders decided to put pressure on the British Government for reforms. Te Congress and Muslim League had their annual session at Bombay in 1915 and spoke on similar tones. In October 1916, the Hindu and Muslim elected members of the Imperial Legislative Council addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy on the post-War reforms. Te British Government was unmoved. Te Congress and the League met at Calcutta in November 1916 and deliberated on the memorandum. It also Minto Morley growing resistance the interned nationalists were released. On 20 August 1917 the new Secretary of State Montagu announced that 'self-governing institutions and responsible government' was the goal of the British rule in India. Almost overnight this statement converted Besant into a near-loyalist. In September 1917, when she was released, she was elected the President of Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress in 1917. (c) Importance of the Home Rule Movement Te Home Rule Leagues prepared the ground for mass mobilization paving the way for the launch of Gandhi’s satyagraha movements. Many of the early Gandhian satyagrahis had been members of the Home Rule Leagues. Tey used the organisational networks created by the Leagues to spread the Gandhian method of agitation. Home Rule League was the frst Indian political movement to cut across sectarian lines and have members from the Congress, League, Teosophist and the Laborites. (d) Decline of Home Rule Movement Home Rule Movement declined afer Besant accepted the proposed Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain in September 1918 to pursue the libel case that he had fled against Valentine Chirol, the author of Indian Unrest. Te Indian Home Rule League was renamed the Commonwealth of India League and used to lobby British MPs in support of self-government for India within the empire, or dominion status along the lines of Canada and Australia. It was transformed by V.K. Krishna Menon into the India League in 1929. 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 34 02-01-2023 15:39:44 www.tntextbooks.in
35 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement National Party have come to realize the fact that united they stand, but divided they fall, and brothers have at last met brothers..." Te Congress got its old vigour with extremists back into it. Besant and Tilak also played an important role in bringing the Congress and the Muslim League together under what is popularly known as the Congress–League Pact or the Lucknow Pact. Jinnah played a pivotal role during the Pact. Te agreements accepted at Calcutta in November 1916 were confrmed by the annual sessions of the Congress and the League in December 1916. 3.3 Provisions of the Lucknow Pact i) Provinces should be freed as much as possible from Central control in administration and fnance. ii) Four-ffhs of the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils should be elected, and one-ffh nominated. iii) Four-ffhs of the provincial and central legislatures were to be elected on as broad a franchise as possible. iv) Half the executive council members, including those of the central executive council were to be Indians elected by the councils themselves. v) Te Congress also agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in provincial council elections and for preferences in their favour (beyond the proportions indicated by population) in all provinces except the Punjab and Bengal, where some ground was given to the Hindu and Sikh minorities. Tis pact paved the way for Hindu–Muslim cooperation in the Khilafat Movement and Gandhi’s Non–Cooperation Movement. vi) Te Governments, Central and Provincial, should be bound to act in accordance with resolutions passed by their Legislative Councils unless they were vetoed by the Governor-General or Governors–in–Council and, in that event, if the resolution was passed again afer an interval of not less than one year, it should be put into efect. agreed on the composition of the legislatures and the number of representation to be allowed to the two communities in the post-War reforms. Parallel to this, Tilak and Besant were advocating Home Rule. Due to their eforts the Bombay session accepted to take back the extremist section and, consequently, the constitution of the Congress was altered. 1916 was therefore a historic year since the Congress, Muslim League and the Home Rule League held their annual sessions at Lucknow. Ambika Charan Mazumdar, Congress president welcomed the extremists: "… afer ten years of painful separation … Indian Lala Hardayal, who settled in San Francisco, founded Pacifc Coast Hindustan Association in 1913, with Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president. Tis organization was popularly called Ghadar Party. (‘Ghadar’ means rebellion in Urdu.) Te members of this party were largely immigrant Sikhs of US and Canada. Te party published a journal called Ghadar . It began publication from San Francisco on November 1, 1913. Later it was published in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi and other languages.Te Ghadar Movement was an important episode in India’s freedom struggle. A ship named Komagatamaru , flled with Indian immigrants was turned back from Canada. As the ship returned to India several of its passengers were killed or arrested in a clash with the British police. Tis incident lef a deep mark on the Indian nationalist movement. Lala Hardayal A.C. Mazumdar 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 35 02-01-2023 15:39:44 www.tntextbooks.in
36 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement British suspected that some Indian nationalists were in contact with revolutionaries abroad. So the Foreigners Ordinance was promulgated in 1914 which restricted the entry of foreigners. A majority of these legislations were passed in order to break the base of the revolutionary movements. Te colonial state also resorted to banning meetings, printing and circulation of seditious materials for propaganda, and by detaining the suspects. 3.5 The Defence of India Act, 1915 Also referred to as the Defence of India Regulations Act, it was an emergency criminal law enacted with the intention of curtailing the nationalist and revolutionary activities during the First World War. Te Act allowed suspects to be tried by special tribunals each consisting of three Commissioners appointed by the Local Government. Te act empowered the tribunal to infict sentences of death, transportation for life, and imprisonment of up to ten years for the violation of rules or orders framed under the act. Te trail was to be in camera and the decisions were not subject to appeal. Te act was later applied during the First Lahore Conspiracy trial. Tis Act, afer the end of First World War, formed the basis of the Rowlatt Act. 3.6 Khilafat Movement In the First World War the Sultan of Turkey sided with the Triple Alliance against the allied powers and attacked Russia. Te Sultan was also the Caliph and was the custodian of the Islamic sacred places. Afer the war, Britain decided to weaken the position of Turkey and the Treaty of Sevres was signed. Te eastern part of the Turkish Empire such as Syria and Lebanon were mandated to France, while Palestine and Jordan became British protectorates. Tus the allied powers decided to end the caliphate. vii) Te relations of the Secretary of State with the Government of India should be similar to those of the Colonial Secretary with the Governments of the Dominions, and India should have an equal status with that of the Dominions in any body concerned with imperial afairs.Te Lucknow Pact paved the way for Hindu-Muslim Unity. Sarojini Ammaiyar called Jinnah, the chief architect of the Lucknow Pact, “the Ambassador of Hindu–Muslim Unity”.Te Lucknow Pact proved that the educated class both from the Congress and the League could work together with a common goal. Tis unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movements. 3.4 Repressive Measures of the Colonial State Parallel to the Congress there emerged revolutionary groups who attempted to overthrow away the British government through violence methods. Te revolutionary movements constituted an important landmark in India's freedom struggle. It began in the end of the nineteenth century and gained its momentum from the time of the partition of Bengal. Te revolutionaries were the frst to demand complete freedom. Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab were the major centers of revolutionary activity. For a brief while Madras presidency was also an active ground of the revolutionary activity.In order to crush the growing nationalist movement, the government adopted many measures. Lord Curzon created the Criminal Intelligence Department (CID) in 1903 to secretly collect information on the activities of nationalists. Te Newspapers (Incitement to Ofences) Act (1908) and the Explosives Substances Act (1908), and shortly thereafer the Indian Press Act (1910), and the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act (1911) were passed. Te 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 36 02-01-2023 15:39:44 www.tntextbooks.in
37 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement Te demands of the Khilafat Movement were presented by Mohammad Ali to the diplomats in Paris in March 1920. Tey were: 1. Te Sultan of Turkey's position of Caliph should not be disturbed. 2. Te Muslim sacred places must be handed over to the Sultan and should be controlled by him. 3. Te Sultan must be lef with sufcient territory to enable him to defend the Islamic faith and 4. Te Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must remain under his sovereignty. Te demands of the movement had nothing do to with India but the question of Caliph was used as a symbol by the Khilafat leaders to unite the Indian Muslim community who were divided along regional, linguistic, class and sectarian lines. In Gail Minault's words: "A pan-Islamic symbol opened the way to pan-Indian Islamic political mobilization." It was anti-British, which inspired Gandhi to support this cause in a bid to bring the Muslims into the mainstream of Indian nationalism. Gandhi also saw this as an opportunity to strengthen Hindu–Muslim unity. Te Khilafat issue was interpreted diferently by diferent sections. Lower-class Muslims in U.P. interpreted the Urdu word khilaf (against) and used it as a symbol of general revolt against authority, while the Mappillais of Malabar converted it into a banner of anti-landlord revolt. Khilafat Movement Te dismemberment of the Caliphate was seen as a blow to Islam. Muslims around the world, sympathetic to the cause of the Caliph, decided to oppose the move. Muslims in India also organised themselves under the leadership of the Ali brothers – Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali started a movement known as Khilafat Movement. Te aim was to the support the Ottoman Empire and protest against the British rule in India. Numerous Muslim leaders such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Sheikh Shaukat Ali Siddiqui and Syed Ataullah Shah Bukhari joined the movement. Mappilla Uprising in Malabar Gandhi had been honoured with Kaisari-Hind gold medal for his humanitarian work in South Africa. He had also received the Zulu War silver medal for his services as an ofcer of the Indian volunteer ambulance corps in 1906 and Boer War silver medal for his services as assistant superintendent of the Indian volunteer stretcher-bearer corps during Boer War of 1899–1900. When Gandhi launched the scheme of non-cooperation in connection with Khilafat Movement, he returned all the medals saying, ‘…events that have happened during the past one month have confrmed in me the opinion that the Imperial Government have acted in the Khilafat matter in an unscrupulous, criminal and unjust manner and have been moving from wrong to wrong in order to defend their immorality. I can retain neither respect nor afection for such a government.’ 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 37 02-01-2023 15:39:44 www.tntextbooks.in
38 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement Wadia. The union was formed mainly due to the ill-treatment of Indian worker in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Perambur. The working conditions was poor. Short interval for mid-day meal, frequent assaults on workers by the European assistants and inadequate wages led to the formation of this union. This union adopted collective bargaining and used trade unionism as a weapon for class struggle. Tis wave spread to other parts of India and many unions were formed at this time such as the Indian Seamen’s Union both at Calcutta and Bombay, the Punjab Press Employers Association, the G.I.P. Railway Workers Union Bombay, M.S.M. Railwaymen’s Union, Union of the Postmen and Port Trust Employees Union at Bombay and Calcutta, the Jamshedpur Labour Association, the Indian Colliery Employees Association of Jharia and the Unions of employees of various railways. To suppress the labour movement the Government, with the help of the capitalists, tried by all means to subdue the labourers. Tey imprisoned strikers, burnt their houses, and fned the unions, but the labourers were determined in their demands. Nationalist leaders and intellectuals were moved by the plight of the workers, and many of them worked towards organizing them into unions. Teir involvement also led to the politicization of the working class, and added to the strength of the freedom movement as most of the mills were owned by Europeans who were supported by the government. On 30 October 1920, representatives of 64 trade unions, with a membership of 140,854, met in Bombay and established the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) under the Chairmanship of Lala Lajpat Rai. It was supported by national leaders like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai 3.7 Rise of Labour Movement Introduction of machinery, new methods of production, concentration of factories in certain big cities gave birth to a new class of wage earners called factory workers. In India, the factory workers, mostly drawn from villages, initially remained submissive and unorganised. Many leaders like Sorabjee Shapoorji and N.M. Lokhanday of Bombay and Sasipada Banerjee of Bengal raised their voice for protecting the interests of the industrial labourers. In the afermath of Swadeshi Movement (1905) Indian industries began to thrive. During the War the British encouraged Indian industries which manufactured war time goods. As the war progressed they wanted more goods so more workers were recruited. Once the war ended workers were laid of and production cut down. Further prices increased dramatically in the post-War situation. India was also in the grip of a world-wide epidemic of infuenza. In response labourers began to organize to fght and trade unions were formed to protect the interests of the workers.Te success of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 also had its efect on Indian labour. A wave of ideas of class consciousness and enlightenment swept the world of Indian labours. Te Indian soldiers who had fought in Europe brought the news of good labour conditions. Te industrial unrest that grew up as a result of grave economic difculties created by War, and the widening gulf between the employers and the employees, and the establishment of International Labour Organisation of the League of Nations brought mass awakening among the labours.Madras played a pivotal role in the history of labour movement of India. The first trade union in the modern sense, the Madras Labour Union, was formed in 1918 by B.P. N.M. Lokhanday Sasipada Banerjee 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 38 02-01-2023 15:39:45 www.tntextbooks.in
39 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others from the Indian National Congress. Te trade unions slowly involved themselves in the national movement. In April 1919 afer the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Gandhi’s arrest, the working class in Ahmedabad and other parts of Gujarat resorted to strikes, agitations and demonstrations. Trade unions were not recognised by the capitalists or the government in the beginning. But the unity of the workers and the strength of their movement forced the both to recognise them. From 1919–20 the number of registered trade unions increased from 107 to 1833 in 1946–47. Summary „„ Te events that took place in the frst two decades of the twentieth century including the outbreak of the First World War had a major impact on Indian nationalist politics. „„ Te political vacuum created as a result of the split in the Congress paved the way for the rise of Home Rule League by Annie Besant. „„ Te Home Rule Movement of both Tilak and Besant demanded self-governing status for India. „„ Te War provided an opportunity for the Congress and the Muslim League to come together and sign the famous Lucknow Pact, resulting in Hindu–Muslim unity. „„ During the War the British passed many repressive acts aimed at curbing any activity towards India’s freedom from the British rule. „„ While the crushing defeat of Turkey and the humiliating peace treaty imposed on it led to Khilafat Movement, the Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of Trade Union Movement in India. „„ Te First World War indirectly prepared the ground for the launch of new form of protest under the leadership of Gandhi. I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Te Home Rule Movement in south India was started by (a) Tilak (b) Annie B esant (c) B.P. Wadia (d) Co l. H.S. Olcott 2. Which of the following about Annie Besant are correct? 1. Annie Besant was elected the international president of the Teosophical Society, afer Col. H.S. Olcott. 2. She started a weekly Te Commonweal in 1914. 3. She published a book How India Wrought for Freedom in 1915. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 an d 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 an d 3 3. Assertion: Sarojini Ammaiyar called Jinnah ‘the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity’. Reason: Jinnah was the chief architect of the Lucknow pact.(a) A is correct R does not explain A.(b) A is correct and R explanations A.(c) A is wrong and R is correct.(d) Both A and R are wrong 4. Who founded the Banaras Hindu University? (a) Mahatma Gandhi(b) Madan Mohan Malaviya(c) Tilak(d) B.P. Wadia 5. Te Lucknow session of 1916 is noted for (a) Resurgence of Muslim League (b) Temporary merger of Muslims League into Congress (c) Congress’ acceptance of League’s demand for separate electorates for Muslims (d) Jinnah’s negative role in the joint-session of the League and the Congress EXERCISE 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 39 02-01-2023 15:39:45 www.tntextbooks.in
40 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 3. What were the demands of the Khilafat Movement presented to the Paris peace conference held in March 1920? 4. What was the impact and signifcance of the Madras Labour Union? IV. Answer the following in detail 1. Highlight the important provisions of Lucknow Pact. 2. Narrate the work done by two Home Rule Movements one under Tilak and another under Annie Besant. V. Activity 1. Debate why unions are important in today's society to be organised in classes. 2. Te major association and unions be identifed and their activits recorded through group projects. REFERENCES 1. Bipan Chandra, India's Struggle for Independence , Penguin, 2016. 2. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India: 1885–1947, Pearson, 2014. 3. Sekar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to Partition and Afer: A History of Modern India, Orient BlackSwan, 2014. 4. Jaswant Singh, Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence. Rupa , 2009. 5. Ramachandra Guha, Gandhi: Te Years that Changed the World, 1914–1948, Penguin, 2018. INTERNET RESOURCES www.brittanica.com 6. Match the following with the help of codes given below. (A) Ghadar Party - (i) 1916 (B) New India - (ii) 1913 (C) Home Rule - (iii) 1909 (D) Minto-Morley Reforms - (iv) 1915 (a) ii, iv, i, iii (b) iv, i , ii, iii (c) i, iv, iii, ii (d) ii, iii, i v, i 7. Te author of the book Indian Unrest was (a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) Valen tine Chirol (c) Tilak (d) Annie Bes ant 8. Te Ghadar Party was started by (a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) A.C. Mazumd ar (c) Lala Hardayal (d) Sanka rlal Banker 9. Who was the president of the frst All-India Trade Union Congress? (a) B.P. Wadia (b) Jawa harlal Nehru (c) Lala Lajpat Rai (d) C.R. Da s II. Write brief answers 1. What were the repressive measures adopted by colonial government to crush the growing nationalist movement during 1903-1914? 2. What was the background for the launch of the Khilafat movement? 3. Name the book and weekly published by Annie Besant. 4. Describe the Defence of India Act, 1915. III. Write short answer 1. Discuss the twin objectives of the Home Rule League? 2. Why is Ghadar Movement considered an important episode in India’s freedom struggle. 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 40 06-01-2023 09:30:38 www.tntextbooks.in
41 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement GLOSSARY draconic very harsh and severe கடைமயான, ெகாடைமயான contingent a group of police or military personnel காவலர / ராணவப பரவ conspiracy a secret plan by a group of people to do something illegal இரகசய கடடம / சதததடடம moderate avoiding extremes மதவாத ேதசயவாத knighthood a person given a rank of honour by a British king or queen because of his or her special achievement வரதரததைகபபடடம extremist a person who holds a radical view in politics or religion. தவரவாத memorandum a petition that is presented to a person or committee on a particular issue கறபபாைண immigrant a person who arrives to take up permanent residence in a country கடபகபவர Web URL: http://indiaww1.in/index.aspx Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code. Step - 2 Scroll down, Click on ‘Timeline’Step - 3 Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events *Pictures are indicative only*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page T rough this activity you will learn about Role of India in the World War - I ICT CORNER Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 12th_History_EM_Unit_3.indd 41 02-01-2023 15:39:46 www.tntextbooks.in
42 Introduction Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in the coastal town of Porbandar in 1869. When he returned to India in 1915 he had a record of fighting against inequalities imposed by the racist government of South Africa. Gandhi certainly wanted to be of help to forces of nationalism in India. He was in touch with leaders India as he had come into contact with Congress leaders while mobilizing support for the South African Indian cause earlier. Impressed by activities and ideas of Gopala Krishna Gokhale, he acknowledged him as his political Guru. On his return to India, following Gokhale’s advice, Gandhi, who was away from India for over two decades, spent a year travelling all over the country acquainting himself with the situation. He established his Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad but did not take active part in political movements including the Home Rule movement. While in South Africa, Gandhi, gradually evolved the technique of ‘Satyagraha,’ based on ‘Satya’ and ‘Ahimsa’ i.e, truth and non-violence, to fght the racist South African regime. Even while resisting evil and wrong a Satyagrahi had to be at peace with himself and not hate the wrongdoer. A Satyagrahi would willingly accept sufering in the course of resistance, and hatred had no place in the exercise. Truth and nonviolence would be weapons of the brave and fearless and not cowards. For Gandhi there was no diference between precept and practice, faith and action. 4.1 Gandhi’s Experiments of Satyagraha (a) Champaran Movement (1917) Te frst attempt at mobilizing the Indian masses was made by Gandhi on an invitation by peasants of Champaran. Before launching the struggle he made a detailed study of the situation. Indigo cultivators of the district Champaran in Bihar were severely exploited by the European planters who had bound the peasants to compulsorily grow indigo on lease on 3/20 th of their felds and sell it at the rates Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation 4 UNIT Learning Objectives To acquire knowledge of „„ Champaran movement and Kheda satyagraha „„ Montague-Chelmsford reforms „„ Te non-Brahmin movement and non-cooperation movement „„ Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Swaraj party and its activities „„ Simon Commission, Te Round Table Conferences „„ Gandhi - Irwin pact and Ambedker in politics 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 42 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
43 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation worker’s strike and Gandhi’s fast ultimately forced the mill owners’ to concede the demand. (c) The Kheda Struggle (1918) Te peasants of Kheda district, due to the failure of monsoon, were in distress. Tey had appealed to the colonial authorities for remission of land revenue during 1918. As per government’s famine code, in the event of crop yield being under 25 percent of the average the cultivators were entitled for total remission. But the authorities refused and harassed them demanding full payment. Te Kheda peasants who were also battling the plague epidemic, high prices and famine approached the Servants of India Society, of which Gandhi was a member, for help. Gandhi, along with Vithalbhai Patel, intervened on behalf of the poor peasants and advised them to withhold payment and ‘fght unto death against such a spirit of vindictiveness and tyranny.’ Vallabhbhai Patel, a young lawyer and Indulal Yagnik joined Gandhi in the movement and urged the ryots to be frm. Te government repression included attachment of crops, taking possession of the belongings of the ryots and their cattle and in some cases auctioning them. Kheda Satyagraha Te government authorities issued instructions that revenues shall be collected only from those ryots who could aford to pay. On learning about the same, Gandhi decided to withdraw the struggle. fxed by the planters. Tis system squeezed the peasants and eventually reduced them to penury. Accompanied by local leaders such as Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul Huq, Acharya Kripalani and Mahadeva Desai, Gandhi conducted a detailed enquiry. Te British ofcials ordered Gandhi to leave the district. But he refused and told the administration that he would defy the order because it was unjust and face the consequences. Subsequently an enquiry committee with Gandhi also as a member was formed. It was not difficult for Gandhi to convince the committee of the difficulties of the poor peasants. The report was accepted and implemented resulting in the release of the indigo cultivators of the bondage of European planters who gradually had to withdraw from Champaran itself. (b) Mill Workers’ Strike and Gandhi’s Fast at Ahmedabad (1918) Tus Gandhi met with his frst success in his homeland. Te struggle also enabled him to closely understand the condition of peasantry. Te next step at mobilizing the masses was the workers of the urban centre, Ahmedabad. Tere was a dispute between the textile workers and the mill owners. He met both the parties and when the owners refused to accept the demands of the low paid workers, Gandhi advised them to go on strike demanding a 35 percent increase in their wages. To bolster the morale of the workers he went on fast. Te Gandhi in Champaran 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 43 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
44 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation Governors. Other subjects such as health, educations and local self-government were ‘transferred’ to elected Indian representatives. Ministers holding ‘transferred subjects’ were responsible to the legislatures; but those in-charge of ‘reserved’ subjects were not further the Governor of the province could overrule the ministers under ‘special (veto) powers,’ thus making a mockery of the entire scheme. The part dealing with central legislature in the act created two houses of legislature (bi-cameral). Te Central Legislative Assembly was to have 41 nominated members, out of a total of 144. Te Upper House known as the Council of States was to have 60 members, of whom 26 were to be nominated. Both the houses had no control over the Governor General and his Executive Council. But the Central Government had full control over the provincial governments. As a result, power was concentrated in the hands of the European / English authorities. Right to vote also continued to be restricted. Te public spirited men of India, who had extended unconditional support to the war eforts of Britain had expected more. Te scheme, when announced in 1918, came to be criticized throughout India. Te Indian National Congress met in a special session at Bombay in August 1918 to discuss the scheme. Te congress termed the scheme ‘disappointing and unsatisfactory.’Te colonial government followed a ‘carrot and stick policy.’ Tere was a group of moderate / liberal political leaders who wanted to try and work the reforms. Led by Surendranath Banerjee, they opposed the majority opinion and lef the Congress to form their own party which came to be called Indian Liberal Federation. 4.3 The Non-Brahmin Movement Te hierarchical Indian society and the contradictions within, found expression in the formation of caste associations and movements to question the dominance of higher castes. Te Te three struggles led by Gandhi, demonstrated that he had understood where the Indian nation lay. It was the poor peasants and workers of all classes and castes, who constituted the pith and marrow of India, whose interests Gandhi espoused in these struggles. He had confronted both the colonialist and Indian exploiters and by entering into dialogue with them, he had demonstrated that he was a leader who could mobilize the oppressed and at the same time negotiate with the oppressors. Tese virtues made him the man of the masses and soon he was hailed as the Mahatma. Servants of India Society was founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905 to unite and train Indians of diferent castes, regions and religions in welfare work. It was the frst secular organization in the country to devote itself to the betterment of underprivileged, rural and tribal people. Te members involved themselves in relief work, the promotion of literacy, and other social causes. Members would have to go through a fve-year training period and agree to serve on modest salaries. Te organization has its headquarters in Pune (Maharashtra) and notable branches in Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay), Allahabad and Nagpur. 4.2 Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms Edwin Montagu and Chelmsford, the Secretary of State for India and Viceroy respectively, announced their scheme of constitutional changes for India which came to be known as the Indian Councils Act of 1919. The Act enlarged the provincial legislative councils with elected majorities. The governments in the provinces were given more share in the administration under ‘Dyarchy.’ Under this arrangement all important subjects like law and order and finance ‘reserved’ for the whitemen and were directly under the control of the 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 44 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
45 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation their caste brethren and helped their educated youth in getting jobs. In the meantime, introduction of electoral politics from the 1880s gave a fllip to such organisations. Te outcome of all this was the expression of socio-economic tensions through caste consciousness and caste solidarity. Two trends emerged out of the non-Brahmin movements. One was what is called the process of ‘Sanskritisatian’ of the ‘lower’ castes and the second was a radical pro-poor and progressive peasant–labour movements. While the northern and eastern caste movements by and large were Sanskritic, the western and southern movements split and absorbed by the rising nationalist and Dravidian–Lef movements. However all these movements were critical of what they called as ‘Brahmin domination’ and attacked their ‘monopoly’, and pleaded with the government through their associations for justice. In Bombay and Madras presidencies clear-cut Brahmin monopoly in the government services and general cultural arena led to non-Brahmin politics. Te pattern of the movement in south was a little diferent. Te Brahmin monopoly was quite formidable as with only 3.2% of the population they had 72% of all graduates. Tey came to be challenged by educated and trading community members of the non-Brahmin castes. Tey were elitist in the beginning and their challenge was articulated by the Non-Brahmin Manifesto issued at the end of 1916. Tey asserted that they formed the ‘bulk of the tax payers, including a large majority of the zamindars, landlords and agriculturists’, yet they received no benefts from the state. Te colonial government made use of the genuine grievances of the non-Brahmins to divide and rule India. Tis was true with the Brahmanetara Parishat, and the Justice Party of Ambedkar and Periyar higher castes also were controlling the factors of production and thus the middle and lower castes were dependent on them for livelihood. Liberalism and humanism which infuenced and accompanied the socio-religious reform movements of the nineteenth century had afected the society and stirred it. Te symptoms of their awakening were already visible in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Te Namasudra movement in the Bengal and eastern India, the Adidharma movement in North Western India, the Satyashodhak movement in Western India and the Dravidian movements in South India had emerged and raised their voice by the turn of the century. Tey were all led by non Brahmin leaders who questioned the supremacy of the Brahmins and other ‘superior’ castes. It frst manifested itself, through Jyoti Rao Phule’s book of 1872 titled Gulamgiri . His organization, Satyashodak Samaj, underscored the necessity to relieve the lower castes from the tyranny of Brahminism and the exploitative scriptures. Te colonial administrators and the educational institutions that were established indirectly facilitated their origin. Added to the growing infuence of Brahmin – upper caste men in the colonial times in whatever opportunity was open to natives, the colonial government published census reports once a decade. Tese reports classifed castes on the basis of ‘social precedence as recognized by native public opinion’. Te censuses were a source of confict between castes. Tere were claims and counterclaims as the leaders of caste organizations fought for pre-eminence and many started new caste associations. Tese attempts were further helped by the emerging political scenario. Leading members of castes realized that it was important to mobilise their castes in struggles for social recognition. More than the recognition, many of them, as years passed by, started providing for education of Jyotiba Phule 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 45 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
46 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation such as meetings, boycott of foreign cloth and schools, picketing of toddy shops, petitions and demonstrations, a novel method was adopted. Now ‘Satyagraha’ was the weapon to be used with the wider participation of labour, artisan and peasant masses. Te symbol of this change was to be khadi, which soon became the uniform of nationalists. India’s Swaraj would be a reality only when the masses awakened and became active in political work. Almost the entire country was electrifed when Gandhi called upon the people to observe ‘hartal’ in March–April 1919 against the Rowlatt Act. He combined it with the Khilafat issue which brought together Hindus and Muslims. (b) Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre Te colonial government was enraged at the mass struggles and the enthusiasm of the masses as evidenced in the upsurge all over the country. On 13 th April 1919, in Amritsar town, in the Jallianwala enclave that the most heinous of political crimes was perpetrated on an unarmed mass of people by the British regime. More than two thousand people had assembled at the venue to peacefully protest against the arrest of their leaders Satyapal and Saifudding Kitchlew. Michael O’Dwyer was the Lt. Governor of Punjab and the military commander was General Reginald Dyer. Tey decided to demonstrate their power and teach a lesson to the dissenters. Te part where the gathering was held had only one narrow entrance. Dyer ordered fring on the trapped crowd with machine guns and rifes till the ammunition was exhausted. While the ofcial Bombay and Madras presidencies respectively at least till 1930. Both the regions had some socially radical possibilities as could be seen in the emergence of a radical Dalit-Bahujan movement under the leadership of Dr Ambedkar and the Self-Respect Movement under the leadership of Periyar Ramaswamy. Te nationalists were unable to understand the liberal democratic content in the awakening among the lower strata of Indian society. While a section of the nationalists simply ignored the stirrings, a majority of them and particularly the so-called extremists–radicals were opposed to the movements. A few of them were even hostile and labelled them as stooges of British, anti-national etc. Te early leaders of the non-Brahmin movement were in fact using the same tactics as the early nationalist leaders in dealing with the colonial government. 4.4 Non-cooperation Movement (a) Rowlatt Act It was as part of the British policy of ‘rally the moderates and isolate the extremists’ that the Indian Councils Act 1919 and the Rowlatt Act of the same year were promulgated. Troughout the World War, the repressive measures against the terrorists and revolutionaries had continued. Many of them were hanged or imprisoned for long terms. As the general mood was restive, the government decided to arm itself with more repressive powers. Despite every elected member of the central legislature opposing the bill, the government passed the Rowlatt Act in March 1919. Tis Act empowered the government to imprison any person without trial.Gandhi and his associates were shocked. It was the ‘Satyagraha Sabha’ founded by Gandhi, which pledged to disobey the Act frst. In the place of the old agitational methods Rowlatt Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 46 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
47 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation A Sikh teenager who was raised at Khalsa Orphanage named Udham Singh saw the happening in his own eyes. To avenge the killings of Jallianwalla Bagh, on 30 March 1940, he assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in Caxton Hall of London. Udham Singh was hanged at Pentonville jail, London Udham Singh Gandhi and the Congress, who were bent upon Hindu-Muslim unity, now stood by their Muslim compatriots who felt betrayed by the British regime. Te Ali brothers – Shukha and Muhammed – and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were the prime movers in the Khilafat movement. (c) Launch of Non-Cooperation Movement Te Khilafat Conference, at the instance of Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier an all party meet at Allahabad had decided on a programme of boycott of government educational institutions and their law courts. Te Congress met in a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to accept Gandhi’s proposal on non-cooperation with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-government established. Non-cooperation movement included boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government ofces, legislatures, foreign goods, return of government conferred titles and awards. Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured and used. Te struggle at a later stage was to include no tax campaign and mass civil disobedience, etc. A regular Congress session held at Nagpur in 1920 endorsed the earlier resolutions. Another important resolution at Nagpur was to recognize and set up linguistic fgures of the dead was only about 379 the real number was over a thousand. Martial law was imposed all over Punjab and people were subject to untold indignities. Te entire country was horrifed at the brutalities. In Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Lahore there were widespread protests against the Rowlatt Act where the protesters were fred upon. Tere was violence in many towns and cities. Protesting against the brutalities many celebrities renounced their titles, of whom Ravindranath Tagore was one. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood immediately afer the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre. In his protest letter to the viceroy on May 31, 1919, Tagore wrote "Te time has come when the badge of honour makes our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation, and, I for my part, wish to stand shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen who for their so-called insignifcance are liable to sufer degradation not ft for human beings." Te two immediate causes responsible for launching the non-cooperation movement were the Khilafat and the Punjab wrongs. While the khilafat issue related to the position of the Turkish Sultan vis-a- vis the holy places of Islam, the Punjab issue related to the exoneration of the perpetrators of the Jallianwala massacre. While the control over holy places of Islam was taken over by non-Islamic powers against the assurances of the British rulers, the British courts of enquiry totally exonerated Reginald Dyer and Michael O’Dwyer of the crime perpetrated at Jallianwala. Ali Brothers 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 47 02-01-2023 15:28:50 www.tntextbooks.in
48 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation Workers and peasants had gone on strike across the country. Gandhi promised Swaraj, if Indians participated in the non-cooperation movement on non-violent mode within a year. South India surged forward during this phase of the struggle. Te peasants of Andhra, withheld payment of taxes to the zamindars and the whole population of Chirala-Perala refused to pay taxes and vacated the town en-mass. Hundreds of village Patels and Shanbogues resigned their jobs. Non-Cooperation movement in Tamil Nadu was organised and led by stalwarts like C. Rajagopalachari, S. Satyamurthi and Periyar E.V.R. In Kerala, peasants organized anti-jenmi struggles. Te Viceroy admitted in a letter to the Secretary of State that the movement had seriously afected lower classes in certain areas of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the peasants have been afected. Impressed by the intensity of the movement, in a special session the Congress reiterated the intensifcation of the movement.In February 1922 Gandhi announced that he would lead a mass civil disobedience, including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the government did not ensure press freedom and release the prisoners within seven days. (e) Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal of the Movement Te common people and the nationalist workers were exuberant that Swaraj would dawn soon and participated actively in the struggle. It had attracted all classes of people including the tribals living in the jungles. But at the same time sporadic violence was also witnessed along with arson. In Malabar and Andhra two very violent revolts also took place. In the Rampa region of coastal Andhra the tribals revolted under the leadership of Alluri Sitarama Raju. In Malabar, Muslim (Mapilla) peasants rose up in armed rebellion against upper caste landholders and the British government. Chauri-Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur district of UP had an organized volunteer group which was participating and leading the picketing of liquor shops and local bazaar Provincial Congress Committees which drew a large number of workers into the movement. In order to broad base the Congress, the workers were to reach out to the villages and enroll the villagers in the Congress on a nominal fee of four annas (25 paise). Te overall character of the Congress underwent change and an atmosphere where a large majority of the masses could develop a sense of belonging to the nation and the national struggle developed. But it also led to some conservatives who were opposed to mass participation in the struggle to leave the Congress. Tus the Congress under Gandhi was shedding its elitist character, becoming a mass organization and in a real sense ‘National’. Non-Cooperaors with Gandhi (d) Impact of Gandhi’s Leadership Tousands of schools and hundreds of colleges and vidyapeethas were established by the natives as alternatives to the government institutions. Several leading lawyers gave up their practice. Tousands of school and college students lef the government institutions. Te Ali brothers were arrested and jailed on sedition charges. Te Congress committees called upon people to launch civil disobedience movement, including no tax movements if the Congress committees of their region were ready. Te government as usual resorted to repression. Workers were arrested indiscriminately and put behind bars. Te visit of Prince of Wales in 1921 to several cities in India was also boycotted. Te calculation of the colonial government that the visit of the Prince would evoke loyal sentiments of the Indian people was proved wrong. 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 48 02-01-2023 15:28:51 www.tntextbooks.in
49 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation There was another group which opposed council entry and wanted to continue the Gandhian line by mobilizing the masses. This team led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad was called ‘No changers.’ They argued that electoral politics would divert the attention of nationalists and pull them away from the work of mass mobilization and their issues. They favoured the continuation of the Gandhian constructive programme of spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability and mobilise rural masses and prepare them for new mass movements. The pro-changers launched the Swarajya party as a part of the Congress. A truce was soon worked out and both the groups would engage themselves in the Congress programmes and their work should complement each other’s activities under the leadership of Gandhi, though Gandhi personally favoured constructive work. The Swarajya party did reasonably well in the elections to Central Assembly by winning 42 of the 101 seats open for election. With the cooperation of other members they were able to stall many anti-people legislations of the colonial regime, and were successful in exposing the inadequacy of the Act of 1919. But their efforts and enthusiasm petered out as time passed by and consciously or unconsciously they came to be co-opted by the Government as members of several committees constituted by it. In the absence of nationalist mass struggle, fissiparous tendencies started rising their head. There were a series of communal riots with fundamentalist elements occupying the space. Even the Swaraj party was affected by the sectarianism as one group in the name of ‘responsivists’ started cooperating with the government, claiming to safeguard “Hindu against high prices. On 5 February 1922, a Congress procession, 3000 strong, was fred upon by police Enraged by the fring, the mob attacked and burnt down the police station. 22 policemen lost their lives. It was this incident which made Gandhi announce the suspension of the non-cooperation movement.Te Congress Working Committee ratifed the decision at Bardoli, to the disappointment of the nationalist workers. While the younger workers resented the decision, the others who had faith in Gandhi considered it a tactical retreat. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose were critical of Gandhi, who was arrested and sentenced to 6 years in prison. Tus ended the non-cooperation movement. Te Khilafat issue was made redundant when the people of Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal Pasha rose in revolt and stripped the Sultan of his political power and abolished the Caliphate and declared that religion and politics could not go together. 4.5 Swarajist Party and its Activities Following the suspension of Non-cooperation the question was what next? Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new line of activity. They wanted to return to active politics which included entry into electoral politics and demonstrate that the nationalists were capable of obstructing the working of the reformed legislature by capturing them and arousing nationalist spirit. This group came to be called the ‘Swarajists and pro-changers’. In Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group. Satyamurti Motilal Nehru Chitaranjan Das 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 49 02-01-2023 15:28:51 www.tntextbooks.in
50 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation Ramprasad Bismil and Ashfaq-ullah were convicted to death and 17 others were sentenced to long term imprisonment in the Kakori conspiracy case. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar Azad and Rajguru, enraged at the police brutality and death of Lajpat Rai, killed Saunders, the British police ofcer who led the lathi charge at Lahore. Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt threw a bomb into the central Assembly hall on 8 April 1929. In 1929 the Meerut conspiracy case was fled and three dozen communist leaders were sentenced to long spells of jail terms. All these developments and incidents are discussed in detail in the next lesson. Chandrashekar Azad Sukhdev 4.6 Simon Commission– Nehru Report – Lahore Congress Te British were due to consider and announce another instalment of constitutional reforms some time in 1929–30. In preparation, it announced the setting up of Indian Statutory commission (known as ‘Simon Commission’ afer its chairman). Te commission had only whitemen as members and it was an insult to Indians. Te Congress at it annual session in Madras in 1927 resolved to boycott the commission. Te Muslim league and the Hindu Mahasabha also supported the decision. A series of conferences were held and the consensus was to work for an alternative proposal. Most of the parties agreed to challenge the colonial attitude towards India and the result was the Motilal Nehru Report. However the All-Parties meet held in 1928 December at Calcutta failed to accept it on the issue of communal representation. interests”. The Muslim fundamentalists similarly seized the space created by the lull in national struggle and started fanning communal feeling. Rise of Left Radicalism Gandhi was pained at the developments. To contain the communal frenzy he went on a 21 day fast. Left Movement Meanwhile socialist ideas and its activists also had flled some space through their work among peasants and workers. Te labour and peasant movements were organized by the ‘lefists’. Marxism as an ideology to criticise colonialism and capitalism had gained ground. It manifested itself in the organization of students and youth apart from trade unions. Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose contributed to the spread of lefist ideology. Tey argued that both colonial exploitation and the internal exploitation by the emerging capitalists should be fought. A group of youngsters with S A. Dange, M.N Roy, Muzafar Ahmed along with elderly persons such as Singaravelu form Tamilnadu founded the peasants and worker’s parties. Te government came down heavily on the communist-socialists and the revolutionaries a series of ‘conspiracy cases’ such as Kanpur, Meerut, Kakori were booked. It was at this juncture Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar Azad, Rajguru and Sukhdev emerged on the scene. Te Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Hindustan Republican Association were started and thousands of youngmen and women became active anti-colonialists and revolutionaries. Youth and student conferences were organized all over the country. Meanwhile Bhagat Singh Rajguru 12th_History_EM_Unit_4.indd 50 02-01-2023 15:28:51 www.tntextbooks.in