GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
HISTORY
HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR
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(ii)
Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition
-
2019
Revised Edition
-
2020, 2022, 2023
Reprint
-
2021, 2024
(Published under new syllabus)
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational
Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
State Council of Educational
Research and Training
© SCERT 2019
Printing & Publishing
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
NOT FOR SALE
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(iii)
HOW TO USE
THE BOOK
Te subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced
Introduction
Key words and technical terms explained at the end of the
lesson for clarity
Glossary
For self-study and self evaluation
Exercise
Visual representations intended to make the complex simple
and make the students grasp difcult concepts easily
Infographs
Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for getting
experiential learning
Te scope of the lesson is presented
Learning Objectives
Provides additional information related to the subject in boxes
to stir up the curiosity of students
Using technology for learning activities, which enables the
students to access digital sources relevant to their lessons.
ICT Corner
Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups
Activities
Describe the main points briefy in bullets for recapitulation
Summary
List of books and net sources for further reading
References
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(iv)
E-bookAssessment
UnitContent
Page
No
Month
1
Rise of Nationalism in India
1
June
2
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
16
June
3
Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
31
June
4
Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
42
July
5
Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles
61
July
6
Communalism in Nationalist Politics
73
July
7
Last Phase of Indian National Movement
84
August
8
Reconstruction of Post-colonial India
100
August
9
Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order
115
August &
September
10
Modern World: Te Age of Reason
130
October
11
Te Age of Revolutions
151
October
12
Europe in Turmoil
176
October &
November
13
Imperialism and its Onslaught
195
November
14
Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies
219
November
15
Te World afer World War II
244
December
Timeline
265
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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1
Introduction
Te political and economic centralisation
of India achieved by the British for the better
exploitation and control of India inevitably
led to the growth of national consciousness
and the birth of the national movement. Te
history of nationalism in India begins with the
campaigns and struggles for social reforms in
the nineteenth century followed by the Western-
educated Indians’ prayers and petitions for
political liberties. With the return of Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi from South Africa in 1915,
and his leadership of the Indian nationalist
movement in 1919 Indian nationalism entered
a mass phase.
Prior to Gandhi, prominent leaders like
Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, and others took the early
initiative to educate the Indians about their
national identity and colonial exploitation.
In this chapter, while tracing the origin and
growth of Indian Nationalism, we focus on the
contribution of these leaders who are known as
the early nationalists.
1.1
Socio-economic
Background
(a)
Implications of the New Land
Tenures
The British destroyed the traditional
basis of Indian land system. In the pre-
British days, the land revenue was realised by
sharing the actual crop with the cultivators.
The British fixed the land revenue in cash
Rise of Nationalism in India
1
UNIT
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
Changes in agrarian conditions and import of British manufactures ruin
Indian handicrafs and the artisanal class
Periodical outbreak of famines force landless labourers and jobless artisans
to emigrate
Introduction of Western education and birth of national awakening.
Other contributory factors for the rise of Nationalism in India
Modern Indian intelligentsia lays the foundation of Indian National Congress
Early Nationalists and their contribution, especially of Naoroji and his Drain Teory
Nationalism:
Broadly, nationalism means
loyalty and devotion to a nation. It is a
consciousness or tendency to exalt and place
one nation above all others, emphasising
promotion of its culture and interests as
opposed to those of other nations.
Q.R.Code
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2
Rise of Nationalism in India
Te fnished products made from those raw
materials were then transported back to the
Indian markets. Mass production with the help
of technological advancement enabled them
to food the Indian market with their goods.
It was available at a comparatively cheaper
price than the Indian handloom cloth. Prior
to the arrival of the British, India was known
for its handloom products and handicrafs. It
commanded a good world market. However, as
a result of the colonial policy, gradually Indian
handloom products and handicrafs lost there
market, domestic as well as international.
Import of English articles into India threw the
weavers, the cotton dressers, the carpenters,
the blacksmiths and the shoemakers out of
employment. India became a procurement
area for the raw material and the farmers were
forced to produce industrial crops like indigo
and other cash crops like cotton for use in
British factories. Due to this shif, subsistence
agriculture, which was the mainstay for
several hundred years, sufered leading to food
scarcity.
Indigo cultivation
without any regard to various contingencies,
such as failure of crops, fall in prices and
droughts or floods. Moreover, the practice of
sale in settlement of debt encouraged money
lenders to advance money to landholders
and resorting to every kind of trickery to rob
them of their property.
Tere were also two other major
implications of the new land settlements
introduced by the East India Company. Tey
institutionalised the commodifcation of land
and commercialisation of agriculture in India.
As mentioned earlier, there was no private
property in land in pre-British era. Now, land
became a commodity that could be transferred
either by way of buying and selling or by way
of the administration taking over land from
holders, in lieu of default on payment of
tax/rent. Land taken over in such cases was
auctioned of to another bidder. Tis created
a new class of absentee landlords who lived
in the cities and extracted revenue from the
lands without actually living on the lands. In
the traditional agricultural set-up, the villagers
produced largely for their consumption among
themselves. Afer the new land settlements,
agricultural produce was predominantly for the
market.
Te commodifcation of land and
commercialisation of agriculture did not
improve the lives and conditions of the peasants.
Instead, this created discontent among the
peasantry and made them restive. Tese
peasants later on turned against the imperialists
and their collaborators.
(b)
Laissez Faire Policy and
De-industrialization: Impact
on Indian Artisans
Te policy of the Company in the wake of
Industrial Revolution in England resulted in the
de-industrialization of India. Tis continued
until the beginning of the World War I. Te
British Government pursued a policy of free
trade or
laissez faire
. Raw materials like cotton,
jute and silks from India were taken to Britain.
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3
Rise of Nationalism in India
years (1891-1900), nineteen
million had died in India in
famines alone.
Sadly when people were
dying of starvation millions
of tonnes of wheat was
exported to Britain. During the 1866 Orissa
Famine, for instance, while a million and a half
people starved to death, the British exported
200 million pounds of rice to Britain. Te Orissa
Famine prompted nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji
to begin his lifelong investigations into Indian
poverty. Te failure of two successive monsoons
caused a severe famine in the Madras Presidency
during 1876-78. Te viceroy Lytton adopted a
hands-of approach similar to that followed in
Orissa. An estimated 3.5 million people died in
the Madras presidency.
Madras Famine
Indentured Labour
Te introduction of plantation crops such as
cofee, tea and sugar in Empire colonies such as
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the
Caribbean islands, and South Africa required
enormous labour. In 1815, the Governor of
Madras received a communication from the
Governor of Ceylon asking for “coolies” to
work on the cofee plantations. Te Madras
Governor forwarded this letter to the collector
of Tanjavur, who reported that the people
were very much attached to the soil and unless
some incentive was provided it was not easy to
make them move out of their native soil. But
the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843)
forced the people, without any incentive from
the government, to leave for Ceylon to work
Te Indigo revolt of 1859 – 60 in Bengal
was one of the responses from the Indian
farmer to the oppressive policy of the British.
Indian tenants were forced to grow indigo by
their planters who were mostly Europeans.
Used to dye the clothes indigo was in high
demand in Europe. Peasants were forced to
accept meagre amounts as advance and enter
into unfair contracts. Once a peasant accepted
the contract, he had no option but to grow
indigo on his land. Te price paid by the
planter was far lower than the market price.
Many a times, the peasants could not even
pay their land revenue dues. Hoping that the
authorities would address their concerns, the
peasants wrote several petitions to authorities
and organised peaceful protests. As their
plea for reform went in vain, they revolted by
refusing to accept any further advances and
enter into new contracts. Peasants, through
the Indigo revolt of 1859-60, were able to
force the planters to withdraw from northern-
Bengal.
(c)
Famines and Emigration of
Indians to Overseas British
Colonies
Famines
As India became increasingly de-
industrialised and weavers and artisans engaged
in handicrafs were thrown out of employment,
there were recurrent famines due to the neglect
of irrigation and oppressive taxation on land.
Before the arrival of the British, Indian rulers
had ameliorated the difculties of the populace
in times of famines by providing tax relief,
regulating the grain prices and banning food
exports from famine-hit areas. But the British
extended their policy of non-intervention
(laissez faire) even to famines. As a result,
millions of people died of starvation during the
Raj. It has been estimated that between 1770
and 1900, twenty fve million Indians died in
famines. William Digby, the editor of
Madras
Times
, pointed out that during 1793-1900 alone
an estimated fve million people had died in all
the wars around the world, whereas in just ten
Q.R.Code
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4
Rise of Nationalism in India
1.2
Western Education
and its Impact
(a)
Education in Pre-British India
Education in pre-colonial India was
characterised by segmentation along religious
and caste lines. Among the Hindus, Brahmins
had the exclusive privilege to acquire higher
religious and philosophical knowledge. Tey
monopolised the education system and
occupied positions in the society, primarily as
priests and teachers. Tey studied in special
seminaries such as
Vidyalayas
and
Chatuspathis.
Te medium of instruction was Sanskrit,
which was considered as the sacred language.
Technical knowledge – especially in relation
to architecture, metallurgy, etc. – was passed
hereditarily. Tis came in the way of innovation.
Another shortcoming of this system was that it
barred women, lower castes and other under-
privileged people from accessing education.
Te emphasis on rote learning was another
impediment to innovation.
(b)
Contribution of Colonial
State: Macaulay System of
Education
Te colonial government aided the spread
of modern education in India for a diferent
reason than educating and empowering the
Indians. To administer a large colony like
India, the British needed a large number of
personnel to work for them. It was impossible
for the British to import the educated lot,
needed in such large numbers, from Britain.
With this aim, the English Education Act was
passed by the Council of India in 1835. T.B.
Macaulay drafed this system of education
introduced in India. Consequently, the colonial
administration started schools, colleges and
universities, imparting English and modern
education, in India. Universities were
established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in
1857. Te colonial government expected this
section of educated Indians to be loyal to the
British and act as the pillars of the British Raj.
as coolies in cofee and tea plantations under
the indentured labour system. Te abolition of
slavery in British India in 1843 also facilitated the
processes of emigration to Empire colonies. In
1837 the number of immigrant Tamil labourers
employed in Ceylon cofee estate was estimated
at 10,000. Te industry developed rapidly and
so did the demand for Tamil labour. In 1846 its
presence was estimated at 80,000 and in 1855 at
128,000 persons. In 1877, the famine year, there
were nearly 380,000 Tamil labourers in Ceylon.
Indentured labour
Besides Ceylon, many Indians opted to
emigrate as indentured labour to other British
colonies such as Mauritius, Straits Settlements,
Caribbean islands, Trinidad, Fiji and South
Africa. In 1843 it was ofcially reported that
30,218 male and 4,307 females had entered
Mauritius as indentured labourers. By the end
of the century some 5,00,000 labourers had
moved from India to Mauritius.
Indentured Labour:
Under this penal contract
system (indenture), labourers were hired for a
period of fve years and they could return to their
homeland with passage paid at the end. Many
impoverished peasants and weavers went hoping
to earn some money. It turned out to be as worse
than slave labour. Te colonial state allowed agents
(
kanganis
) to trick or kidnap indigent landless
labourers. Te labourers sufered terribly on the
long sea voyages and many died on the way. Te
percentage of deaths of indentured labour during
1856-57, in a ship bound for Trinidad from
Kolkata is as follows: 12.3% of all males, 18.5% of
the females, 28% of the boys 36% of the girls and
55% of the infants perished.
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5
Rise of Nationalism in India
(c)
Role of Educated Middle Class
The economic and administrative
transformation on the one side and the
growth of Western education on the other
gave the space for the growth of new social
classes. From within these social classes, a
modern Indian intelligentsia emerged. The
“neo-social classes” created by the British
Raj, which included the Indian trading and
business communities, landlords, money
lenders, English-educated Indians employed
in imperial subordinate services, lawyers and
doctors, initially adopted a positive approach
towards the colonial administration. However,
soon they realised that their interests would
be better served only in independent India.
People of the said social classes began to play
a prominent role in promoting patriotism
amongst the people. The consciousness of
these classes found articulation in a number
of associations prior to the founding of the
Indian National Congress at the national
level.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo
Ghose, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai
Naoroji, Feroz Shah Mehta, Surendra Nath
Banerjea and others who belonged to modern
Indian intelligentsia led the social, religious
and political movements in India. Educated
Indians had exposure to ideas of nationalism,
democracy, socialism, etc. articulated by John
Locke, James Stuart Mill, Mazzini, Garibaldi,
Rousseau, Thomas Paine, Marx and other
western intellectuals. The right of a free
press, the right of free speech and the right
of association were the three inherent rights,
which their European counterparts held dear
to their heart, and the educated Indians too
desired to cling to. Various forums came
into existence, where people could meet and
discuss the issues affecting their interests. This
became possible now at the national level, due
to the rapid expansion of transport network
and establishment of postal, telegraph and
wireless services all over India.
T. B. Macaulay
was India’s frst
law member of the
Governor General
in Council from
1834 to 1838. Before
Macaulay arrived in
India the General
Committee of
Public Instruction was formed in 1823 with
the responsibility to guide the East India
Company on the matter of education and the
medium of instruction. Te Committee was
split into two groups. Te Orientalist group
advocated education in vernacular languages.
Te Anglicists advocated Western education
in English.
Macaulay was on the side of Anglicists
and wrote his famous ‘Minute on Indian
Education’ in 1835. In this Minute, he
argued for Western education in the English
language. His intention behind supporting
the Anglicists was that he wanted to create a
class of persons from within India who would
'be Indian in blood and colour, but English in
taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect'.
T.B. Macaulay
Te British created an educated Indian
middle class for their own ends but sneered at
it as the Babu class. Tat very class, however,
became the progressive intelligentsia of India
and played a leading role in mobilising the
people for the liberation of the country.
University of Madras
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6
Rise of Nationalism in India
Te reformers of nineteenth century
responded to the challenge posed by Western
Enlightenment knowledge based on reason.
Indian national consciousness emerged as
a result of the rethinking triggered by these
reforms. Te Brahmo Samaj was founded
by Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Other socio-
cultural organisations like the Prarthana Samaj
(1867), the Arya Samaj (1875) were founded
subsequently. Roy’s initiative was followed up by
reformers like Keshav Chandra Sen and Iswar
Chandra Vidyasagar. Abolition of sati and child
marriage and widow remarriage became the
main concerns for these reformers. Te Aligarh
movement played a similar role among the
Muslims. Slowly, organisations and associations
of political nature came up in diferent parts of
British India to vent the grievances of the people.
1.4
Other Decisive
Factors for the Rise of
Nationalism
(a)
Memories of 1857
Indian national movement dates its birth
from the 1857 uprising. Te outrages committed
by the British army afer putting down the revolt
remained “un-avenged”. Even the court-martial
law and formalities were not observed. Ofcers
who sat on the court martial swore that they
would hang their prisoners, guilty or innocent
and, if any dared to raise his voice against such
indiscriminate vengeance, he was silenced by
his angry colleagues. Persons condemned to
death afer the mockery of a trial were ofen
tortured by soldiers before their execution,
while the ofcers looked on approvingly. It is
worth recalling what Elphinstone, Governor of
Bombay Presidency, wrote to Sir John Lawrence,
future Viceroy of India (1864) about the British
siege of Delhi during June-September, 1857:
‘...A wholesale vengeance is being taken without
distinction of friend or foe. As regards the
looting, we have indeed surpassed Nadirshah.’
(d)
Contribution of Missionaries
One of the earliest initiatives to impart
modern education among Indians was taken up
by the Christian missionaries. Inspired by the
proselytizing sprit, they attacked polytheism
and caste inequalities that were prevalent among
the Hindus. One of the methods adopted by the
missionaries, to preach Christianity, was through
modern secular education. Tey provided
opportunities to acquire education to the
underprivileged and the marginalised sections,
who were denied learning opportunities in the
traditional education system. However only a
very small fraction converted to Christianity.
But the challenge posed by Christianity led to
various social and religious reform movements.
Mission School
1.3
Social and Religious
Reforms
Te English educated intelligentsia felt the
need for reforming the society before involving
the people in any political programmes. Te
reform movements of nineteenth century are
categorised as 1. Reformist movements such
as the Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, the Prarthana Samaj, founded
by Dr Atmaram Pandurang and the Aligarh
Movement, represented by Syed Ahmad Khan;
2. Revivalist movements such as the Arya Samaj,
the Ramakrishna Mission and the Deoband
Movement. 3. Tere were social movements
led by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana Guru
and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga
Adigal, Vaikunda Swamigal and later Iyothee
Tassar in Tamilnadu. All these reformers
and their contributions have been dealt with
comprehensively in the XI Std. text book.
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7
Rise of Nationalism in India
of nationalist and vernacular news papers came
to be launched to build public opinion and
they did yeomen service in fostering nationalist
consciousness. Among them
Amrit Bazaar
Patrika
,
Te Bombay Chronicle, Te Tribune, Te
Indian Mirror, Te Hindu
and
Swadesamitran
were prominent.
(e)
Invoking India’s glorious
Past
Orientalists like William Jones, Charles
Wilkins and Max Muller explored and
translated religious, historical and literary
texts from Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic into
English and made them available to all.
Infuenced by the richness of Indian traditions
and scholarship, many of the early nationalists
made a fervent plea to revive the pristine
glory of India. Aurobindo Ghose would write,
‘Te mission of Nationalism, in our view, is
to recover Indian thought, Indian character,
Indian perceptions, Indian energy, Indian
greatness and to solve the problems that
perplex the world in an Indian spirit and from
the Indian standpoint.’
1.5
Birth of Indian
Associations
(a)
Madras Native Association
One of the
frst attempts to
organise and vent the
grievances against the
British came through
the formation of
the Madras Native
Association (MNA)
on 26 February 1852.
An association of landed and business classes
of the Madras Presidency, they expressed
their grievances against the Company’s
administration in the revenue, education
and judicial spheres. Gajula Lakshminarasu,
who inspired the foundation of MNA, was a
prominent businessman in Madras city.
Gajula Lakshminarasu
(b)
Racial Discrimination
Te English followed a policy of racial
discrimination. Te systematic exclusion of the
Indians from higher ofcial positions came to be
looked upon as an anti-Indian policy measure
and the resultant discontent of the Indian upper
classes led the Indians to revolt against the
British rule. When civil service examinations
were introduced the age limit was fxed at
twenty one. When Indians were making it, with
a view to debarring the Indians from entering
the civil services, the age limit was reduced
to nineteen. Similarly, despite requests from
Indian educated middle class to hold the civil
service examinations simultaneously in India,
the Imperial government refused to concede
the request.
(c)
Repressive as well as
Exploitative Measures
against Indians
Repressive regulations like Section 124A
of the Indian Penal Code (1870), punishing
attempts to excite disafection towards the
Government, and the Vernacular Press
Act (1878), censoring the press, evoked
protest. Abolition of custom duty on cotton
manufactures imported from England and levy
of excise duty on cotton fabrics manufactured
in India created nationwide discontent. During
the viceroyalty of Ripon the Indian judges
were empowered through the Ilbert Bill to try
Europeans. But in the face of resistance from
the Europeans the bill was amended to suit the
European interests.
(d)
Role of Press
Te introduction of printing press in India
was an event of great signifcance. It helped people
to spread, modern ideas of self-government,
democracy, civil rights and industrialisation. Te
press became the critic of politics. It addressed
the people on several issues afecting the country.
Raja Rammohan Roy’s
Sambad Kaumudi
(1821)
in Bengali and
Mirat-Ul-Akbar
(1822) in Persian
played a progressive role in educating the people
on issues of public importance. Later on a number
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Rise of Nationalism in India
(b)
Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS)
After the Madras Native Association
became defunct there was no such public
organisation in the Madras Presidency. As
many educated Indians viewed this situation
with dismay, the necessity for a political
organisation was felt and in May 1884 the
Madras Mahajana Sabha was organised.
In the inaugural meeting held on 16 May
1884 the prominent participants were: G.
Subramaniam, Viraraghavachari, Ananda
Charlu, Rangiah, Balaji Rao and Salem
Ramaswamy. With the launch of the Indian
National Congress, after the completion of
the second provincial conference of Madras
Mahajana Sabha, the leaders after attending
the first session of the Indian National
Congress (INC) in Bombay amalgamated the
MMS with the INC.
(c)
Indian National Co
ngress (I
NC)
Te idea of forming
a political organisation
that would raise issues
and grievances against
the colonial rule did not
emerge in a vacuum.
Between 1875 and
1885 there were many
agitations against British
policies in India. Te Indian textile industry
was campaigning for imposition of cotton
import duties in 1875. In 1877, demands for
the Indianisation of Government services were
made vociferously. Tere were protests against
the Vernacular Press Act of 1878. In 1883, there
was an agitation in favour of the Ilbert Bill.
But these agitations and protests were
sporadic and not coordinated. There was a
strong realisation that these protests would
not impact on the policy makers unless a
national political organisation was formed.
From this realisation was born the Indian
National Congress. The concept of India
as a nation was reflected in the name of the
organisation. It also introduced the concept
of nationalism.
A.O. Hume
Te Association presented its grievances
before British Parliament when it was discussing
the East India Company’s rule in India before
the passing of the Charter in 1853. In a petition
submitted in December 1852, the MNA pointed
out that the ryotwari and zamindari systems had
thrown agricultural classes into deep distress. It
urged the revival of the ancient village system to
free the peasantry from the oppressive interference
of the zamindars and the Company ofcials.
Te petition also made a complaint about the
judicial system which was slow, complicated and
imperfect. It pointed out that the appointment of
judges without assessing their judicial knowledge
and competence in the local languages afected the
efciency of the judiciary. Te diversion of state
funds to missionary schools, under the grants-in-
aid system, was also objected to in the petition.
Te MNA petition was discussed in the
Parliament in March 1853. H. D. Seymour,
Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to
Madras in October 1853. He visited places like
Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and
Tirunelveli. However, as the Charter Act of 1853
allowed British East India Company to continue
its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation
for the transfer of British territories in India to the
direct control of the Crown. MNA sent its second
petition to British Parliament, signed by fourteen
thousand individuals, pleading the termination of
Company rule in India.
Te life of MNA was short. Lakshminarasu
died in 1866 and by 1881, the association ceased to
exist. Tough the MNA did not achieve much in
terms of reforms, it was the beginning of organised
efort to articulate Indian opinion. In its lifetime,
the MNA operated within the boundaries of
Madras Presidency. Te grievances that the MNA
raised through its petitions and the agitations
it launched were from the point of view of the
elite, particularly the landed gentry of Madras
Presidency. What was lacking was a national
political organisation representing every section
of the society, an organisation that would raise the
grievances and agitate against the colonial power
for their redress. Te Indian National Congress
flled this void.
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9
Rise of Nationalism in India
EW
N
S
Not to Scale
Allahabad
1888
1892
1910
Indian National Congress
Sessions 1885-1947
Patna
1912
Benaras
1905
Guwahati
1926
Amritsar
1919
Lahore
1893
1900
1909
1929
Meerut
1946
Delhi
1918
1923
1932
1947
Madras
1887
1894
1898
1903
1908
1914
1927
No Session - 1930, 1935, 1941-1945
Poona
1895
Belgaum
1924
Kakinada
1923
Bombay
1885
1889
1904
1915
1918
1934
1942
Surat
1907
Ahmedabad
1902
1921
Karachi
Tripuri
1939
Haripura
1938
Faizpur
1937
Amravati
1897
Nagpur
1891
1920
Calcutta
1886
1890
1896
1901
1906
1911
1917
1920 (Special)
1928
1933
Gaya
1922
Ramgarh
1940
Kanpur
1925
Lucknow
1899
1916
1936
(Special)
(Special)
(Special)
1913
1931
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10
Rise of Nationalism in India
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major
factors that contributed to the oppression
of the peasants. It demanded reduction in
the land revenue and protection of peasants
against exploitation of the zamindars. Te
Congress also advocated the imposition of
heavy tax on the imported goods for the
beneft of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher ofcials who had responsibility
of administration in India were selected
through civil services examinations
conducted in Britain. Tis meant that
educated Indians who could not aford to go
to London had no opportunity to get high
administrative jobs. Terefore, Indianisation
of services through simultaneous Indian
Civil Services Examinations in England and
India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the
Indian political activists by English judges
it demanded the complete separation of the
Executive and the Judiciary.
(d)
Contributions of Early
Nationalists (1885–1915)
Te early nationalists in the INC came
from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers,
college and university teachers, doctors,
journalists and such others represented the
Congress. However, they came from diferent
regions of the country and this made INC a
truly a national political organisation. Tese
leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional
methods of presenting petitions, prayers and
memorandums and thereby earned the moniker
of “Moderates”. It was also the time some sort of
an understanding about colonialism was
evolving in India. Tere was no ready-made
anti-colonial understanding available for
reference in the late nineteenth century when
the INC was formed. It was the early nationalists
who helped the formulation of the idea of
we
as
a nation. Tey were developing the indigenous
anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their
In December 1884,
Allan Octavian Hume, a
retired English ICS ofcer,
presided over a meeting of
the Teosophical Society
in Madras. Te formation
of a political organisation
that would work on an all
India basis was discussed
and the idea of forming
the Indian National Congress emerged in this
meeting. Te Indian National Congress was
formed on 28 December 1885 in Bombay. Apart
from A.O Hume, another important founding
member was W C. Bonnerjee, who was elected
the frst president.
Tough the activities of the INC then
revolved around petitions and memoranda,
from the very beginning the founders of
the INC worked to bring every section of
the society into its ambit. One of the main
missions of the INC was to weld the Indians
into a nation. Tey were convinced that the
struggle against the colonial rule will be
successful only if Indians saw themselves as
the members of a nation. To achieve this, the
INC acted as a common political platform for
all the movements that were being organised
in diferent parts of the country. Te INC
provided the space where the political workers
from diferent parts of the country could gather
and conduct their political activities under its
banner. Even though the organization was
small with less than a hundred members, it had
an all-India character with representation from
all regions of India. It was the beginning of the
mobilisation of people on an all-India basis.
Te major objectives and demands of INC
were
Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the
government was one of the major demands
of the Indian National Congress. It
demanded Indian representation in the
government.
W.C. Bonnerjee
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11
Rise of Nationalism in India
were involved in journalism. Dadabhai
Naoroji founded and edited two journals
called
Voice of India
and
RastGoftar
.
Surendranath Banerjea edited the
newspaper called
Bengalee.
Bal Gangadhar
Tilak edited
Kesari
and
Mahratta.
This
is the means that they used to educate
the common people about the colonial
oppression and spread nationalist ideas.
News regarding the initiatives taken by
the INC were taken to the masses through
these newspapers. For the first time, in
the history of India, the press was used
to generate public opinion against the
oppressive policies and acts of the colonial
government.
Bal Gangadhar
Tilak was a firm
believer that the
lower middle classes,
peasants, artisans
and workers could
play a very important
role in the national
movement, He used
his newspapers to
articulate the discontent among this section
of the people against the oppressive colonial
rule. He called for national resistance against
imperial British rule in India. On 27 July
1897, Tilak was arrested and charged under
Section 124 A of the Indian Penal Code. Civil
liberty, particularly in the form of freedom of
expression and press became the significant
part of Indian freedom struggle.
1.6
Naoroji and his Drain
Theory
Dadabhai Naoroji, known as the ‘Grand
Old Man of Indian Nationalism’, was a
prominent early nationalist. He was elected
to the Bombay Municipal Corporation and
Town Council during the 1870s. Elected to
the British Parliament in 1892, he founded
the India Society (1865) and the East India
Association (1866) in London. He was elected
thrice as the President of the INC.
own which helped future mass leaders like M. K
Gandhi.
From the late 1890s there were growing
diferences within the INC. Leaders like Bipin
Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala
Lajpat Rai were advocating radical approaches
instead of merely writing petitions, prayers
and memorandums. Tese advocates of radical
methods came to be called the “extremists” as
against those who were identifed as moderates.
Teir objective became clear in 1897 when
Tilak raised the clarion call “Swaraj is my birth
right and I shall have it”. Tilak and his militant
followers were now requesting Swaraj instead
of economic or administrative reforms that
the moderates were requesting through their
petitions and prayers.
Tough they criticised each other, it would
be wrong to place them in the opposing poles.
Both moderates and militants, with their own
methods, were signifcant elements of the larger
Indian nationalist movement. In fact, they
contributed towards the making of the swadeshi
movement. Te partition of Bengal in 1905, by
the colonial government, which you will be
studying in the next lesson, was vehemently
opposed by the Indians. Te swadeshi movement
of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and
encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise,
national education, self-help and use of Indian
languages. Te method of mass mobilisation
and boycott of British goods and institutions
suggested by the radicals was also accepted by
the Moderates.
Both the Moderates and the Radicals were
of the same view when it came to accepting
the fact that they needed to fulfil the role
of educators. They tried to instil nationalist
consciousness through
various means
including the press.
When the INC was
founded in 1885, one-
third of the members
were journalists. Most
stalwarts of the early
freedom movement
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Surendranath Banerjea
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12
Rise of Nationalism in India
Indians who strove for the reforms of
Indian society.
Factors like the bitter memories of 1857,
policy of racial discrimination, repressive
measures against dissension contributed
to the growth of nationalism.
Modern intelligentsia formed political
organisation like Madras Native
Association (1852), Madras Mahajana
Sabha (1884) and Indian National
Congress (1885) to voice their opinions
and grievances.
An important role of these leaders was
to educate the common mass about the
exploitative colonial rule and its impact
on their day to day life. Drain of wealth
theory enunciated by Dadabhai Naoroji
exposed the British loot of the resources
of India.
His major contribution
to the Indian nationalist
movement was his book
Poverty and Un-British
Rule of the British in India
(1901). In this book, he
put forward the concept
of ‘drain of wealth’. He
stated that in any country
the tax raised would have been spent for the
wellbeing of the people of that country. But in
British India, taxes collected in India were spent
for the welfare of England. Naoroji argued that
India had exported an average of 13 million
pounds worth of goods to Britain each year from
1835 to 1872 with no corresponding return.
Te goods were in lieu of payments for profts
to Company shareholders living in Britain,
guaranteed interest to investors in railways,
pensions to retired ofcials and generals,
interest for the money borrowed from England
to meet war expenses for the British conquest
of territories in India as well as outside India.
All these, going in the name of Home Charges,
Naoroji asserted, made up a loss of 30 million
pounds a year.
Summary
Te land and revenue reforms implemented
by the East India Company since late
eighteenth century had its impact on the
agrarian conditions in India.
Te growth of heavy machine industries
in Britain allowed East India Company to
export raw materials from India to Britain
and take back the fnished products – a
process that led to the decline of Indian
handicrafs, making the artisans go
jobless.
Landless labourers and jobless artisans
emigrating to Empire colonies to escape
starvation deaths.
The unintended result of Western
education introduced by the British was
the emergence of a new class of educated
EXERCISE
Q.R.Code
I.
Choose the correct answer
1.
When did Gandhi return to India from South
Africa?
(a) 1915
(b) 1916
(c) 1917
(d) 1918
2.
In which year English Education was
introduced in India?
(a) 1825
(b) 1835
(c) 1845
(d) 1855
3.
Find the odd one.
(a) William Jones
(b) Ch
arles Wilkins
(c) Max Muller
(d) Aur
obindo Ghose
4.
‘Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it’
was said by
(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
(d) Bharathi
Dadabhai Naoroji
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13
Rise of Nationalism in India
10.
Who was called the ‘Grand Old Man of India?
(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
(b) M.K. Gandhi
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(d) Subhash Chandra Bose
11.
Who wrote the book -
‘Poverty and
Un-British Rule in India’
?
(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
(b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(d) M.G. Ranade
12.
Assertion (A):
Te British Government
pursued a policy of free trade (or) laissez fair.
Reason(R):
India had comparative advantage
from England's free trade policy.
(a) A is correct but R does not explain A.
(b) A is correct and R explains A.
(c) A is correct and R is incorrect.
(d) Both A and R are wrong.
13.
Which of the following statements are
correct on Orissa famine?
Statement I:
In 1866 a million and a half
people of Orissa died of starvation.
Statement II:
During that time the British
exported 200 million pounds of rice to
Britain.
Statement III:
Te Orissa famine prompted
Dadabai Naoroji to begin a life long
investigation of poverty in India.
(a) I & II
(b) I & III
(c) None of the above
(d) All of the above
II. Write brief answers
1. What is nationalism ?
2.
Describe the implications of the new land
tenures?
3.
Write a note on Indigo revolt?
4.
Discuss the importance of Ilbert Bill.
5.
Match and choose the correct answer from
the code given below.
(A) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
-
1.
Voice of India
(B) Dadabhai Naoroji
-
2.
Madras Time
(C) Macaulay
-
3.
Kesari
(D) William Digby
-
4.
Minute
on Indian
Education
Code
(a) 2, 4, 1, 3
(b) 3, 1, 4, 2
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4
(d) 4, 2, 3, 1
6.
Which one of the following is correctly
matched?
(a) English Education Act - 1843
(b) Te abolition of slavery - 1859
(c) Madras Native Association - 1852
(d) Indigo revolt - 1835
7.
Which is the correct chronological sequence
of the following associations?
(i) East India Association
(ii) Madras Mahajana Sabha
(iii) Madras Native Association
(iv) India Society
Select the answer from the codes given below:
(a) ii, i, iii, iv
(b) ii, iii
, i, iv
(c) iii, iv, i, ii
(d) iii, i
v, ii, i
8.
Te Indian National Congress was founded
by _________
(a) Subhash Chandra Bose
(b) Gandhi
(c) A.O. Hume
(d) B.G. Tilak
9.
Te frst President of the Indian National
Congress was
(a) Surendranath Bannerjea
(b) Badruddin Tyabji
(c) A.O. Hume
(d) W.C. Bonnerjee
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14
Rise of Nationalism in India
4.
Explain the objectives of the Indian National
Congress and contributions of the early
nationalists to the cause of India’s liberation
from the colonial rule.
V. Activity
1.
A debate on what would have happened if
western system of education had not been
introduced by the British in India.
2.
Compiling a volume containing biographical
account of the early nationalists from Tamil
Nadu with images and pictures.
VI. Map Work
Mark the following on the outline map of India.
Venues of Congress Sessions.
1. Bombay
2. Ca
lcutta
3. Madra
s
4. Ahmedabad
5. Luc
know
6. Ka
npur
7. Surat
8. La
hore
9. Po
ona
10. Allahabad
REFERENCES
Bipan Chandra, et al.,
India’s Struggle for
Independence
, Penguin, New Delhi, 2016.
Desai, A.R.,
Social Background of Indian
Nationalism
, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
6th Edition 2011.
R. Suntharalingam,
Politics and
Nationalist Awakening in South India
,
1852–1891, University of Arizona Press,
Tucson, 1974.
Sashi Tharoor,
An Era of Darkness: The
British Empire in India
, Aleph, New
Delhi, 2016.
INTERNET RESOURCES
www.brittanica.com
5.
Highlight the contribution of missionaries to
modern education.
6.
What were the grievances represented by the
Madras Native Association in their petition
to the British Parliament?
7.
Make a list of the important political
associations formed in India prior to the
Indian National Congress.
8.
Identify the prominent early Indian
nationalists.
III. Write short answers
1.
Analyse Macaulay's ‘Minute on Indian
Education’.
2.
What do you know of the Madras visit of the
chairman of Indian Reform Society in 1853?
3.
Point out the role played by press in creating
nationalist consciousness in British India
4.
Describe the way in which indentured labour
was organized in British India?
5.
Name the prominent participants in the
inaugural meeting of Madras Mahajana
Sabha held in May 1884?
6.
Attempt a brief account of early emigration of
labourers to Ceylon.
7.
What were the items which constituted Home
Charges?
IV. Answer the following in detail
1 .
Discuss the impact of Western education on
Indian Middle Class, highlighting the latter’s
role in reforming and regenerating Indian
Society.
2.
Examine the Socio-economic causes for the
rise of nationalism British in India.
3.
To what extent the repressive and racist policy
measures of the British were responsible for
the national awakening in India.
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15
Rise of Nationalism in India
GLOSSARY
Laissez faire
Non-interference of the government
in the economic afairs of individuals
and society /Free Trade
தடையல்ல வணகக க
கல
ள
டக
ameliorate
to make better
சர
ல
கக, மேன
டே
ய
ல
கக
indentured
labour
a debt bondage worker on a contract
ஒப்ந
த
த
கதல
ழ
்ல
ளர
Orientalist
someone from the west studying
the language, culture and history of
countries in eastren Asia
கழதத
ட
ை ந
ல
டகள
ன
கேல
ழ,
்
ண
்ல
ட, வர
்ல
ற கற்வர
Anglicists
an authority on or student of English
languages and literature
ஆஙக
்
கேல
ழ
இ
்
ககயம
கற்வர
proselytizing
attempting to convert someone from
one religion, belief, or opinion to
another
ே
தம
ேலற
றம மய
ற
ச
polytheism
the belief in or worship of more than
one god
்்
கத
ய
வ
நமப
கடக
vernacular
language commonly spoken by the
people of a particular a region or a
particular group
ச
மதை
கேல
ழ
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16
Introduction
By the last decade of the nineteenth century,
there was conspicuous resentment against
moderate politics within the Indian National
Congress. Tis feeling of resentment eventually
evolved into a new trend, referred to as the
‘Extremist’ trend. Te extremist or what we may
call radical or militant group was critical of the
moderates for their cautious approach and the
“mendicant policy” of appealing to the British
by way of prayers and petitions. Tis form of
militancy developed under the leadership of
Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra, Bipin
Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in
the Punjab. Te primary reasons for the rise of
this trend were: factionalism in the Congress,
frustration with the moderate politics, anger
against Lord Curzon for dividing Bengal.
Te partition of Bengal in 1905 – a prime
example of the British divide and rule policy
– acted as the catalyst for the growth of anti-
colonial swadeshi nationalism. Te partition
plan was frst opposed by moderates but as the
movement progressed, diferent techniques
were improvised for the Swadeshi campaign.
Swadeshi constructive programme included
boycott of foreign goods and government-
administered educational institutions. Te
Swadeshi movement (1905–1911) is the
most important phase of the Indian National
Movement in the pre-Gandhian era, as, during
the course of the movement, the character
of the Indian national movement changed
signifcantly in terms of the stated objectives,
methods and in its social base.
Rise of Extremism and
Swadeshi Movement
2
UNIT
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature and signifcance of the Swadeshi Movement in
Bengal
To know the repressive measures of the government of British India
To trace the events leading up to the Surat Split (in the Indian National Congress) in 1907
To familiarise ourselves with revolutionary extremism in Bengal
To acquaint ourselves with the Swadeshi Struggles in Tamil Nadu
To examine the role played by V.O. Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania Siva
and Subramania Bharati
Swadeshi Movement
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Te mass base of the movement was
expanded by exposing the problems of various
social groups under the British governance and
the underlying commonality in their lives - that
is colonial exploitation. For the frst time, in the
history of Indian national movement, women,
workers, peasants, and marginalised groups
were exposed to modern nationalist ideas and
politics. It was a period when the elite made a
conscious efort to address the common people,
calling upon them to join politics. Te other
prominent development during the Swadeshi
period was the growth of the vernacular press
(newspapers published in Indian languages)
in various parts of India. Te nationalistic
tone of the vernacular press became more
pronounced during this time. Te role played
by
Swadesamitran
in Tamil Nadu,
Kesari
in
Maharashtra,
Yugantar
in Bengal are a few
examples.
As the movement gained support among
the people, the government passed a series of
repressive Acts such as the Public Meetings Act
(1907), the Explosive Substance Act (1908),
the Newspaper (Incitement and Ofence Act
1908) and the Indian Press Act (1910) to crush
the nationalistic activities of any nature. One
such measure was recording and monitoring
of public meetings which were considered a
matter of judicial scrutiny. (Shorthand was used
by the police for the frst time to record political
speeches.) In this lesson, while discussing
the Bengal as well as national scenarios, the
Swadeshi Campaigns conducted in Tamil nadu
with particular focus on the role played by V.O.
Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania
Siva and Subramania Bharati.
2.1
Partition of Bengal
On January 6,
1899, Lord Curzon
was appointed the new
Governor General
and Viceroy of India.
Tis was a time when
British unpopularity
was increasing due to
the impact of recurring
famine and the plague. Curzon did little to change
the opinion of the educated Indian class. Instead
of engaging with the nationalist intelligentsia,
he implemented a series of repressive measures.
For instance, he reduced the number of
elected Indian representatives in the Calcutta
Corporation (1899). Te University Act of 1904
brought the Calcutta University under the direct
control of the government. Te Ofcial Secrets
Act (1904) was amended to curb the nationalist
tone of Indian newspapers. Finally, he ordered
partition of Bengal in 1905. Te partition led
to widespread protest all across India, starting a
new phase of the Indian national movement.
Lord Curzon
Bengal (1905 - 1911)
Bengal
Eastern
Assam
Bengal (1905 - 1911)
Area (Km
2
)366,692
54
9
16.67
Population (mn)
Muslims (mn)
Muslims %
Eastern Bengal & Assam
(1905 - 1911)
Area (Km
2
)275,938
31
18
58.06
Population (mn)
Muslims (mn)
Muslims %
Bengal
Not to Scale
EW
N
S
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
balancing out each other. Tere was a conscious
attempt on the part of British administration
to woo the Muslim population in Bengal. In
his speech at Dhaka, in Februry 1904, Curzon
assured the Muslims that in the new province
of East Bengal, Muslims would enjoy a unity,
which they had never enjoyed since the days of
old Muslim rule.
Te partition, instead of dividing the
Bengali people along the religious line, united
them. Perhaps the British administration had
underestimated the growing feeling of Bengali
identity among the people, which cut across
caste, class, religion and regional barriers.By
the end of the nineteenth century, a strong
sense of Bengali unity had developed among
large sections in the society. Bengali language
had acquired literary status with Rabindranath
Tagore as the central fgure. Te growth of
regional language newspapers played a role in
building the narrative of solidarity. Similarly,
recurring famines, unemployment, and a slump
in the economic growth generated an anti-
colonial feeling.
2.2
Anti-Partition Movement
Both the militants and the moderates were
critical of the partition of Bengal ever since it
was announced in December 1903. But the anti-
partition response by leaders like Surendranath
Banerjee, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray
remained restricted to prayers and petitions.
Te objective was limited to infuencing public
opinion in England against the partition.
However, despite this widespread resentment,
partition of Bengal was ofcially declared on 19
July 1905.
Bengal Presidency as
an administrative unit was
indeed of unmanageable in
size; the necessity of partition
was being discussed since the
1860s. Te scheme of partition
was revived in March 1890. In Assam, when
Curzon went on a tour, he was requested by the
European planters to make a maritime outlet
closer to Calcutta to reduce their dependence
on the Assam–Bengal railways. Following this,
in December 1903, Curzon drew up a scheme
in his Minutes on Territorial Redistribution of
India, which was later modifed and published
as the Risely Papers. Te report gave two reasons
in support of partition: Relief of Bengal and the
improvement of Assam. Te report, however,
concealed information on how the plan was
originally devised for the convenience of British
ofcials and the European businessmen.
From December 1903 and 1905 this initial
idea of transferring or reshufing some areas
from Bengal was changed to a full-fedged plan
of partition. Te Bengal was to be divided
into two provinces. Te new Eastern Bengal
and Assam were to include the divisions of
Chittagong, Dhaka, parts of Rajshahi hills of
Tippera, Assam province and Malda.
Aimed at Hindu Muslim Divide
Te intention of Curzon was to suppress
the political activities against the British rule
in Bengal and to create a Hindu–Muslim
divide. Te government intentionally ignored
alternative proposals presented by the civil
servants, particularly the idea of dividing
Bengal on linguistic basis. Curzon rejected
this proposal as this would further consolidate
the position of the Bengali politicians. Curzon
was adamant as he wanted to create a clearly
segregated Hindu and Muslim population in
the divided Bengal. Curzon, like many before
him, knew very well that there was a clear
geographical divide along the river Bhagirathi:
eastern Bengal dominated by the Muslims, and
western Bengal dominated by the Hindus and
in the central Bengal and the two communities
Aswini Kumar Dutta
Bipin Chandra Pal
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
of public meetings were organized in
towns and villages across Bengal. Religious
festivals such as the Durga Pujas were
utilized to invoke the idea of boycott. The
day Bengal was officially partitioned –
16 Oct 1905 – was declared as a day of
mourning. Thousands of people took bath
in the Ganga and marched on the streets of
Calcutta singing Bande Mataram.
2.3
Boycott and Swadeshi
Movements in Bengal
(1905–1911)
Such eforts,
both organized and
spontaneous, laid
the foundation for a
sustained campaign
against the British.
Te boycott and
swadeshi were always
interlinked to each
other and part of a wider plan to make India
self-sufcient. G. Subramaniam, a nationalist
leader from Madras, succinctly explained the
aim of the swadeshi movement as ‘a revolt
against their state of dependence…in all
branches of their national life’. In the words
of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, ‘the swadeshi
movement is not only for the improvement of
our industry but for an allround enhancement
of our national life ....’ As the movement
progressed, diferent defnitions of Swadeshi
appeared. However, for the larger part, the
movement of Swadeshi and Boycott was
practiced as an anti-colonial political agitation
and not as a viable method to achieve dignity
and freedom in life, a defnition which
would be later infused with the entry of
Mahatma Gandhi.
(a) Constructive Swadeshi
Te constructive Swadeshi programmes
largely stressed upon self-help. It focused on
building alternative institutions of self-
governance that would operate entirely free
G. Subramaniam
With the failure to stop the partition of
Bengal and the pressure exerted by the radical
leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Aswini Kumar
Dutta, and Aurobindo Ghose, the moderate
leaders were forced to rethink their strategy,
and look for new techniques of protest. Boycott
of British goods was one such method, which
afer much debate was accepted by the moderate
leadership of the Indian National Congress. So,
for the frst time, the moderates went beyond
their conventional political methods. It was
decided, at a meeting in Calcutta on 17 July
1905, to extend the protest to the masses. In the
same meeting, Surendranath Banerjee gave a
call for the boycott of British goods and
institutions. On 7 August, at another meeting at
the Calcutta Town Hall, a formal proclamation
of Swadeshi Movement was made.
However, the agenda of Swadeshi
movement was still restricted to securing an
annulment of the partition and the moderates
were very much against utilizing the campaign
to start a full-scale passive resistance. The
militant nationalists,
on the other hand,
were in favour
of extending the
movement to other
provinces too and to
launch a full-fledged
mass struggle.
Spread of the Movement
Besides the organized efforts of the
leaders, there were spontaneous reactions
against the partition of Bengal. Students,
in particular, came out in large numbers.
Reacting to the increased role of the
students in the anti-partition agitation,
British officials threatened to withdraw
the scholarships and grants to those who
participated in programmes of direct
action. In response to this, a call was given
to boycott official educational institutions
and it was decided that efforts were to be
made to open national schools. Thousands
Aurobindo Ghose
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Te idea of education in
vernacular language made
its appearance much before
the swadeshi movement with
the foundation of Dawn Society by Satish
Chandra Mukherjee in 1902.
On 5 November 1905, at the initiative
of the Dawn Society, the National Council of
Education was formed. In August 1906, Bengal
National College and a School were founded. A
passionate appeal was made by Satish Chandra
to the students to come out of ‘institutions of
slavery.’ Such eforts, however, failed to attract
many due to the bleak job prospects.
(b) Samitis
Te other successful method of mass
mobilization was the formation of samitis
(corps of volunteers). Te samitis were engaged
in a range of activities such as physical and
moral training of members, philanthropic work
during the famines, epidemics, propagation
of Swadeshi message during festivals, and
organization of indigenous arbitration courts,
and schools. By its very nature boycott was
passive action and its aim was to refuse to
cooperate with the British administration.
But these mass mobilization eforts failed
to fourish as they could not extend their base
among the Muslim peasantry and the “Depressed
Classes”. Most of the samitis recruited from the
educated middle class and other upper caste
Hindus. Besides this, the swadeshi campaigners
ofen applied coercive methods, both social and
physical. For instance, social boycott of those
purchasing foreign goods was common and
taken up through caste associations and other
nationalist organisations.
(c) Passive Resistance
From 1906, when the abrogation of partition
was no longer in sight, the Swadeshi Movement
took a diferent turn. For many leaders, the
movement was to be utilized for propagating
the idea of the political independence or Swaraj
across India. Te constructive programmes came
from British control. It also laid emphasis on
the need for self-strengthening of the people
which would help in creating a worthy citizen
before the launch of political agitations.
Rabindranath
Tagore was one of the
central fgures who
popularised such
ideas through his
writings. He outlined
the constructive
programme of
atmashakti (self-help).
Tagore called for economic self- development
and insisted that education should be provided
in swadeshi languages. He also made the call for
utilising melas, or fairs, to spread the message of
atmashakti. Tis became the creed of the whole
of Bengal and swadeshi shops sprang all over
the place selling textiles, handlooms, soaps,
earthenware, matches and leather goods.
Evolution of the idea of Swadeshi
During the freedom struggle, the idea of
Swadeshi movement was conceptualized frst
during 1905 by a string of Congress leaders and
then later in the 1920s under the leadership of
Mahatma Gandhi.
Swadeshi means ‘of one’s own country’. Te
origin of the idea can be traced to 1872 when
Mahadev Govind Ranade, in a series of lectures
in Poona, popularised the idea of Swadeshi.
According to Ranade, the goods produced in one’s
own country should be given preference even if the
use of such goods proved to be less satisfactory.
In the 1920s Gandhi gave a new meaning
to the idea of Swadeshi by linking it to the
fulflment of a duty that all Indians owed to the
land of their birth. For Gandhi, Swadeshi did
not merely mean the use of what is produced
in one’s own country. Gandhi defned Swadeshi
in following words “Swadeshi is that spirit in us
which restricts us to the use and service of our
immediate surroundings to the exclusion of
more remote. I should use only things that are
produced by my immediate neighbours and
serve those industries by making them efcient
and complete where they may be found wanting.”
Rabindranath Tagore
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Militant nationalism also changed the
nature of political pressure from the earlier force
of public opinion of educated Indians to the
protesting masses. Despite these changes, the
militant nationalism phase retained a continuity
from the moderate phase. Tis continuity
was evident in the inability to transcend the
peaceful method of struggle and for the most
parts militant nationalism remained tied to the
idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to
the patriotic sentiments of the people using the
religious symbols.
Swaraj
or Political Independence
One of the common goals of the militant
leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule.
However, the leaders difered on the meaning
of Swaraj. For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the
Indian control over the administration or rule
by the natives, but not total severance of relation
with Britain. In Bipin Chandra Pal’s view, Swaraj
was the attainment of complete freedom from
any foreign rule.
Te other point of departure of the
militants from the moderates was over the rising
extremism in Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra.
Unlike the moderates, who were critical of the
reckless revolutionaries, militant nationalists
were sympathetic towards them. However,
the political murders and individual acts of
terrorism were not approved of by the militant
leaders and they were cautious of associating
themselves with the cause of revolutionaries.
Te patriotism glued with the assertion of
Hindu beliefs was not acceptable to the Muslims.
Also much like their predecessors the leaders of the
swadeshi movement failed to penetrate the larger
section of the society. By 1908 militant nationalism
was on the decline. Te Surat split of 1907 was
another contributing factor to this decline.
under heavy criticism from Aurobindo Ghose,
Bipin Chandra Pal, and other militant leaders.
Under their new direction, the swadeshi agenda
included boycott of foreign goods; boycott of
government schools and colleges; boycott of
courts; renouncing the titles and relinquishing
government services; and recourse to armed
struggle if British repression went beyond the
limits of endurance. Te programme of this
nature required mass mobilization. Using
religion, combined with the invocation of a
glorious past, became the essential features of
their programmes.
2.4
Militant Nationalism
As pointed out earlier, thanks to the
campaigns conducted by Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal, ofen
referred to as the Lal–Bal–Pal triumvirate,
Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the
epicentres of militant nationalism during the
Swadeshi phase. Aurobindo Ghose was another
infuential fgure in the militant leadership. Te
nationalism of this form was more assertive
compared to the early Indian nationalism.
Triumvirate : Lal–Bal–Pal
Both the groups, moderate and militant,
were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings
of the British rule. Te moderates, however,
worked under the belief that the British rule
in India could be reformed by convincing the
rulers through representation and petitioning.
Te militant nationalist, on the other hand, was
of the opinion that the colonial rulers would
never be amenable to reason, as they would not
like to give up the advantages of an empire.
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Pherozeshah Mehta group sought removal
of those items from the agenda. In order to
counter Mehta’s manoeuvering, the militants
decided to oppose the election of Rash Behari
Gosh as president. The session ended in
chaos.
The Indian National Congress, born in
December 1885, was now split into two groups
– militant and moderate. The Congress which
emerged after the Surat split was more loyal
to the British than they were before. The
new Congress, minus the militants, came to
be known as Mehta Congress and the 1908
session of the Congress was attended only by
the moderates who reiterated their loyalty to
the Raj. The politics of militants, on the other
hand, could not crystallize into a new political
organization. The primary reason was the
repressive measures of the government by
putting all the prominent leaders in jail.
2.5
Revolutionary Extremism
Around 1908, the
decline of the militant
nationalists and the
rise of revolutionary
activities marked an
important shif from
non-violent methods
to violent action. It
also meant a shif from
mass-based action to elite response to the British
rule. In Bengal, revolutionary terrorism had
developed even earlier; around the 1870s, when
the akharas or gymnasiums were setup in various
places to develop what Swami Vivekananda had
described as strong muscles and nerves of steel.
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel,
Anandmath
also had a signifcant impact.
Anandmath
was
widely read by the revolutionaries in Bengal. Te
Bande Mataram song, which is part of the novel,
became the anthem of the swadeshi movement.
Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee
Surat Split
Congress Split at Surat
The tension between the militants and
the moderates became more pronounced with
the appointment of Lord Minto as the new
Viceroy to India in 1906. As the tension was
rising between the two groups, a split was
avoided, in the 1906 Calcutta session, by
accepting demands of moderate leaders and
electing Dadabhai Naoroji as president. Most
of the moderates, led by Pherozeshah Mehta,
were defeated in the election. The militants
managed to pass four resolutions on Swadeshi,
Boycott, National Education, and Self-
Government.
The next session
of Congress was
originally planned
to be held in Poona,
considered to be a
stronghold of the
militants. Fearing a
repeat of the Calcutta
session, the moderates shifted the venue to
Surat. The militants proposed Lala Lajpat
Rai’s name for the next Congress presidency
opposing the moderate’s candidate Rash
Behari Ghosh. Lala Lajpat Rai, however,
turned down the offer to avoid the split. The
matter finally boiled down to the question
of retaining the four resolutions that were
passed in the Calcutta session in 1906. The
Pherozeshah Mehta
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Khudiram Bose
Prafulla Chaki
A conspiracy was hatched there to kill
Douglas Kingsford, notorious for his cruel ways
of dealing with the swadeshi agitators. Two
young revolutionaries - 18-year-old Khudiram
Bose and 19-year-old Prafulla Chaki – were
entrusted with the task of carrying out the
killing. On 30 April 1908, they mistakenly threw
a bomb on a carriage, that, instead of killing
Kingsford, killed two English women. Prafulla
Chaki committed suicide and Khudiram Bose
was arrested and hanged for the murder.
Aurobindo Ghose,
along with his brother
Barinder Kumar Ghose and thirty-fve other
comrades, were arrested. Chittaranjan Das took
up the case. It came to be known as the Alipore
Bomb case.
Te judgement observed that there was
no evidence to show that Aurobindo Ghose
was involved in any conspiracy against the
British rule. Ghose was acquitted of all the
charges. Barindra Ghose and Ullaskar Dutt
were given the death penalty (later commuted
to the transportation of life), with the rest being
condemned to transportation for life. Te
year-long hearing of Alipore Bomb case made
a great impact and portrayed the nationalist
revolutionaries as heroes to the general public.
Trial and the Aftermath
Afer his acquittal, Aurobindo Ghose
took to a spiritual path and shifed his base
to Pondicherry, where he stayed until his
death in 1950. Te idea of bringing an armed
revolution, envisaged by Aurobindo Ghose,
never materialized. Te reason for the gradual
decline in the revolutionary activities in
Bengal was a combination of government
repression and alienation from the people.
During the Swadeshi movement three factors
contributed to the upsurge in the individual acts
of violence:
Te apolitical constructive programmes
had little acceptance among the youth who
was growing impatient under the repressive
foreign rule.
Te failure of the militant nationalists to
lead the young people into a long-term mass
movement also contributed to the growth of
individual action.
Te revolutionary action was part of an
efort towards the symbolic recovery of
Indian manhood, which the revolutionaries
believed was ofen challenged and looked
down upon by the British.
Such actions, however, did not lead to
any organised revolutionary movement as was
the case in Russia. Te revolutionary actions
were mostly attempts to assassinate specifc
oppressive British ofcers.
(a) Alipore Bomb Case
In Bengal, the story of revolutionary
terrorism begins in 1902 with the formation
of many secret societies. Most notable among
them all was the Anushilan Samity of Calcutta,
founded by Jatindernath Banerjee and
Barindarkumar Ghose, brother of Aurobindo
Ghose. Similarly, the Dhaka Anushilan Samity
was born in 1906 through the initiative of Pulin
Behari Das. Tis was followed by the launch of
the revolutionary weekly
Yugantar
. Te Calcutta
Anushilan Samity soon started its activities and
the frst swadeshi dacoity, to raise funds, was
organised in Rangpur in August 1906.
In the same year, Hemchandra Kanungo
went abroad to get military training in Paris.
Afer his return to India in 1908, he established
a bomb factory along with a religious school at a
garden house in Maniktala. In the same garden
house, young inmates underwent various forms
of physical training, reading classic Hindu
text, and reading literature on revolutionary
movement across the world.
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
(a)
Development of Vernacular
Oratory
Initially, the movement was more of a
reaction to the partition of Bengal and regular
meetings were held to protest the partition.
The speakers, in such meetings, spoke mostly
in the vernacular language to an audience
that included students, lawyers, and labourers
at that time. The shift from English oratory
to vernacular oratory was a significant
development of this time, which had a huge
impact on the mass politics in Tamil Nadu.
Swadeshi meetings at the Marina beach in
Madras were a regular sight. Te Moore Market
complex in Madras was another venue utilised
for such gatherings. During the period (1905-
1907) there are police reports calling students
dangerous and their activities as seditious.
Europeans in public places were greeted by
the students with shouts of Vande Mataram. In
1907, Bipin Chandra Pal came to Madras and
his speeches on the Madras Beach electrifed
the audience and won new converts to the
nationalist cause. Te visit had a profound
impact all over Tamil Nadu. Te public speeches
in the Tamil language created an audience
which was absent during the formative years of
the political activities in Tamil Nadu.
(b)
V.O.C. and Swadeshi Steam
Navigation Company (SSNC)
Te Swadeshi
movement in Tamil
Nadu came to national
attention in 1906 when
V.O. Chidambaram
mooted the idea of
launching a swadeshi
shipping venture in
opposition to the
monopoly of the British in navigation through
the coast.
In 1906, V.O.C. registered a joint stock
company called Te Swadeshi Steam Navigation
Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh,
divided into 40,000 shares of Rs. 25 each.
V.O. Chidambaram
Beside this, revolutionary terrorism sufered
from certain social limitations too as most of
the revolutionaries were drawn from the three
upper castes – Brahmin, Kayastha, and Vaishya.
(b) British Repression
In December 1908 the Morley-Minto
constitutional reforms were announced.
The moderates welcomed the reforms.
However, they soon realised that there was
hardly any shift of power. In fact, measures
taken by Minto were highly divisive as it
institutionalised communal electorates
creating Hindu-Muslim divide. Beside this,
the colonial government also introduced
certain repressive laws such as:
Te Newspapers (Incitement to Ofence) Act,
1908. Tis act empowered the magistrate to
confscate press property which published
objectionable material making it difcult to
publish anything critical of British rule.
Indian Press Act 1910 made it mandatory
for publishers and the printers to deposit
a security that could be seized in case they
printed ‘obnoxious material’.
Te Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act
allowed summary trails and also imposed
the prohibition of ‘association dangerous to
the public peace’.
Even with the widespread repression, the
charm of revolutionary action never disappeared
from the Indian national movement. Te
centre of activities moved from Bengal to Uttar
Pradesh and Punjab.
2.6
Swadeshi Campaign in
Tamil Nadu
Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu, notably
in Tirunelveli district, generated a lot of attention
and support. While the Swadeshi movement
in Tamil Nadu had an all India favour, with
collective anger against the British rule remaining
the common thread, it was also underpinned by
Tamil - pride and consciousness. Tere was a
deep divide in the Tamilnadu congress between
the moderates and the extremists.
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
meetings were attended by thousands of
people. These public gatherings were closely
monitored by the administration.
In 1908, the abject working and living
conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted
the attention of V.O.C and Siva. In the next
few days, both the leaders addressed the mill
workers. In March 1908, the workers of the
Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went
on strike. It was one of the earliest organised
labour agitations in India.
Te strike of the mill workers was fully backed
by the nationalist newspapers. Te mill owners,
however, did not budge and was supported by
the government which had decided to suppress
the strike. To further increase the pressure on
the workers, the leaders were prohibited from
holding any meetings in Tuticorin. Finally,
the mill owners decided to negotiate with the
workers and concede their demands.
Tis victory of the workers generated
excitement among the militants in Bengal and
it was hailed by the newspapers in Bengal. For
instance, Aurobindo Ghosh’s
Bande Matram
hailed the strike as “forging a bond between
educated class and the masses, which is the
frst great step towards swaraj…. Every victory
of Indian labour is a victory for the nation….”
(d)
Subramania Bharati: Poet
and Nationalist
Te growth of
newspapers, both in
English and Tamil
language, aided the
swadeshi movement
in Tamil Nadu. G.
Subramaniam was
one of the frst among
the leaders to use
newspapers to spread the nationalist message
across a larger audience. Subramaniam, along
with fve others, founded
Te Hindu
(in English)
and
Swadesamitran
(which was the frst ever
Tamil daily). In 1906 a book was published by
Subramaniam to condemn the British actions
during the Congress Conference in Barsal.
Subramania Bharati
Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese
and other Asian nationals. V.O.C. purchased
two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.
When in the other parts of India, the response
to Swadeshi was limited to symbolic gestures
of making candles and bangles, the idea of
forging a Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company
was really spectacular. V.O.C invoked the rich
history of the region and the maritime glory
of India’s past and used it as a reference point
to galvanize the public opinion in favour of a
Swadeshi venture in the sea.
Te initiative of V.O.C. was lauded by
the national leaders. Lokmanya Tilak wrote
about the success of the Swadeshi Navigation
Company in his papers
Kesari
and
Mahratta
.
Aurobindo Ghose also lauded the Swadeshi
eforts and helped to promote the sale of shares
of the company. Te major shareholders
included Pandithurai and Haji Fakir Mohamed.
V.O.C. Ship
Te initial response of the British
administration was to ignore the Swadeshi
company. As patronage for Swadeshi Company
increased, the European ofcials exhibited
blatant bias and racial partiality against the
Swadeshi steamship.
(c) The Coral Mill Strike
After attending the session of the
Indian National Congress at Surat, V.O.C.
on his return decided to work on building
a political organisation. While looking for
an able orator, he came across Subramania
Siva, a swadeshi preacher. From February
to March 1907, both the leaders addressed
meetings almost on a daily basis at the beach
in Tuticorin, educating the people about
swadeshi and the boycott campaign. The
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Te local public, angered over the arrest
of the prominent swadeshi leaders, reacted
violently. Shops were closed in a general show
of defance. Te municipality building and the
police station in Tirunelveli were set on fre.
More importantly, the mill workers came out in
large numbers to protest the arrest of swadeshi
leaders. Afer a few incidents of confrontation
with the protesting crowd, the police open fred,
and four people were killed.
On 7 July 1908, V.O.C. and Subramania
Siva were found guilty and imprisoned on
charges of sedition. Siva was awarded a sentence
of 10 years of transportation for his seditious
speech whereas V.O.C. got a life term (20 years)
for abetting him. V.O.C. was given another
life sentence for his own seditious speech.
Tis draconian sentence reveals how seriously
the Tirunelveli agitation was viewed by the
government.
In the afermath of this incident, the
repression of the British administration was not
limited to the arrest of a few leaders. In fact, people
who had actively participated in the protest were
also punished and a punitive tax was imposed on
the people of Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
Swadesamitran
extensively reported nationalist
activities, particularly the news regarding
V.O.C. and his speeches in Tuticorin.
Subramania Bharati became the sub-
editor of
Swadesamitran
around the time
(1904) when Indian nationalism was looking
for a fresh direction. Bharati was also editing
Chakravartini
, a Tamil monthly devoted to the
cause of Indian women.
Two events had a signifcant impact on
Subramania Bharati. A meeting in 1905 with
Sister Nivedita, an Irish woman and a disciple of
Vivekananda, whom he referred to as Gurumani
(teacher), greatly inspired his nationalist ideals.
Te churning within the Congress on the nature
of engagement with the British rule was also a
contributory factor. As discussed earlier in this
lesson, the militants ridiculed the mendicancy
of the moderates who wanted to follow the
constitutional methods. Bharati had little doubt,
in his mind, that the British rule had to be
challenged with a fresh approach and methods
applied by the militant nationalists appealed
to him more. For instance, his fascination with
Tilak grew afer the Surat session of the Congress
in 1907. He translated into Tamil Tilak’s
Tenets
of the New Party
and a booklet on the Madras
militants’ trip to the Surat Congress in 1907.
Bharati edited a Tamil weekly
India
, which
became the voice of the radicals.
(e)
Arrest and imprisonment of
V.O.C. and Subramania Siva
On March 9, 1907,
Bipin Chandra Pal was
released from prison
afer serving a six-
month jail sentence.
Te swadeshi leaders
in Tamil Nadu planned
to celebrate the day of
his release as ‘Swarajya
Day’ in Tirunelveli. Te local administration
refused permission. V.O.C., Subramania Siva
and Padmanabha Iyengar defed the ban and
went ahead. Tey were arrested on March 12,
1908, on charges of sedition.
Subramania Siva
Excerpts from the Judgment in the
case of King Emperor versus V.O.C. and
Subramania Siva (4 November 1908).“It
seems to me that sedition at any time is a
most serious ofense. It is true that the case is
the frst of its kind in the Presidency, but the
present condition of other Presidencies where
the crime seems to have secured a foothold
would seem to indicate that light sentences
of imprisonment of a few months or maybe
a year or two are instances of misplaced
leniency. ...Te frst object of a sentence is
that it shall be deterrent not to the criminal
alone but to others who feel any inclination to
follow his example. Here we have to deal with
a campaign of sedition which nearly ended in
revolt. Te accused are morally responsible
for all the lives lost in quelling the riots that
ensured on their arrest”.
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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
administration grew more suspicious with the
Pondicherry groups and their activities. Such
an atmosphere further scuttled the possibility
of nationalistic propaganda and their activities
in Tamil Nadu. As a fall-out of the repressive
measure taken by the colonial government, the
nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu entered a
period of lull and some sort of revival happened
only with the Home Rule Movement in 1916.
Summary
Te swadeshi campaigns in the wake of
partition of Bengal are watershed moments
in the history of anti-colonial struggles.
Besides building new techniques of
political propaganda, the movement also
gave impetus to carry on a sustained
resistance even in the Gandhian phase of
freedom movement.
It was also a communication revolution
as the Swadeshi movement resulted in a
shif from English to swadeshi language
(regional language) as the medium of
political propaganda.
Te swadeshi movement also led to
the emergence of youth who remained
fascinated by the idea of taking to violence.
The swadeshi atmosphere richly
contributed to an interest in history,
literature, and poetry on patriotism and
nationalism in vernacular languages.
Te militants, however, failed to connect
the nationalist slogans with larger
economic grievances and the mass contact
programmes, as the British unleashed
violence against the nationalists.
Te use of religion and religious symbols
to mobilize the Hindus alienated Muslims.
(f) Ashe Murder
Repression of the Swadeshi eforts in
Tuticorin and the subsequent arrest and
humiliation of the swadeshi leaders generated
anger among the youth. A plan was hatched to
avenge the Tirunelveli event. A sustained
campaign in the newspapers about the repressive
measures of the British administration also
played a decisive role in building people’s anger
against the administration.
In June 1911,
the collector of
Tirunelveli, Robert
Ashe, was shot
dead at Maniyachi
Railway station by
Vanchinathan. Born
in the Travancore
state in 1880, he
was employed as a forest guard at Punalur in
the then Travancore state. He was one of the
members of a radical group called Bharata Mata
Association. Te aim of the association was to
kill the European ofcers and inspire Indians
to revolt, which they believed would eventually
lead to Swaraj. Vanchinathan was trained in the
use of a revolver, as
part of the mission, by
V.V. Subramaniam in
Pondicherry.
Afer shooting
Ashe at the
Maniyachi Junction,
Vanchinathan shot
himself with the same
pistol.
The aftermath of the
Assassination
During the course of the trial, the British
government was able to establish that V.V.S
and other political exiles in Pondicherry were
in close and active association with the accused
in the Ashe murder conspiracy. Te colonial
Vanchinathan
V.V. Subramaniam
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28
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
4.
Which one of the following is correctly paired?
(a)
Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee
-
Ana
ndmath
(b) G. Subramaniam
-
Da
wn Society
(c) Lord Minto
-
Te U
niversity
Act of 1904
(d)
Epicentre of
militant nationalism
-
Madra
s
5.
Anushilan Samity of Calcutta was founded by
(a) Pulin Behari Das
(b) Hemachandra Kanungo
(c)
Jatindernath Banerjee and
Barindar Kumar Ghose
(d) Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki
6.
Assertion (A):
16 October 1905 was declared
as a day of mourning.
Reason (R):
Tat day Bengal was ofcially
divided into two provinces.
(a)
A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
(b)
A and R are true and R is not the correct
explanation of A.
(c) A is correct and R is wrong.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct.
7.
Assertion (A):
V.O. Chidambaram established a
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company.
Reason (R):
He wanted to oppose the
monopoly of the British in navigation
through the coast.
(a)
A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b)
A and R are true and R is not the correct
explanation of A
(c) A is correct and R is wrong
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
8.
Which of the following statement is not true
about Subramania Bharati?
(a)
Bharati was the sub–editor of
Swadesamitran.
(b)
He translated Tilak’s Tenets of the New
Party into Tamil.
(c)
Bharati’s Gurumani was Swami
Vivekananda.
(d)
He was editor of a woman’s magazine by
name
Chakravartini
.
I.
Choose the
correct answer
1.
Whose name was proposed
as president by militant nationalists for the
surat session of the Congress?
(a) Aurobindo Ghose
(b) Dad
abhai Naoroji
(c) Pherozesha Mehta
(d) La
la Lajpat Rai
2.
Consider the following statements.
(i)
Te partition of Bengal in 1905 was the
most striking example of the British
divide and rule policy.
(ii)
In the Calcutta meeting 1905,
Surendranath Banerjea gave a call for the
boycott of British goods and institutions.
(iii)
On 7 August 1905 at Town Hall meeting
in Calcutta, a formal proclamation of
Swadeshi Movement was made.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) (i) only
(b) (i) an
d (iii) only
(c) (i) and (ii) only
(d) Al
l of the above.
3.
Match List I and List II and select answer
with the help of the codes given below.
List I
Lis
t II
A.
Indian Press
Act 1910
- 1.
Se
lf-rule
B. Dawn Society
-
2.
a re
volt against
their state of
dependence
C. Swaraj
-
3.
cru
shed the
nationalistic
activities
D. Swadeshi
-
4.
Te N
ational
Council of
education
Codes
A
B
C
D
(a)
3
1
4
2
(b)
1
2
3
4
(c)
3
4
1
2
(d)
1
2
4
3
EXERCISE
Q.R.Code
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29
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
IV. Answer the following in detail
1.
Attempt an account of Swadeshi movement
in Tamilnadu.
2.
Write about the role played by
V.O. Chidambaram in Indian National
Movement.
V. Activity
1.
Conduct a discourse on the vision of Poet
Subramaia Bharati.
2.
Te Tamil movie Kappalotiya Tamilan be
arranged to be screened.
REFERENCES
1.
Bipan Chandra, etal.
India’s Struggle for
Independence,
Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2016.
2.
Sumit Sarkar,
Modern India 1885-1947,
Pearson,
New Delhi, 2018.
3.
Sekhar Bandopadhyay,
From Plassey to
Partition and Afer: A History of Modern
India, Orient BlackSwan,
Hyderabad, 2009.
4.
A.R. Venkatachalapathy, 'In Search of Ashe,
'Ecnomic & Political Weekly, 9 Janauary 2009.
II. Write brief answers
1.
What was called the mendicant policy of the
Moderates?
2.
How did M.G. Ranade explain the idea of
Swadeshi?
3.
Identify the leaders of the epicenters of
militant nationalism in British India
4.
Why was militant nationalism was on the
decline by 1908?
5.
What were the repressive measures adopted
by the colonial government to crush the
nationalist movements?
III. Write short answer
1.
Give an account of the proceedings of Surat
session that ended in the split of the Congress.
2.
Explain the reasons for the spurt in individual
acts of violence during the Swadeshi
movement.
3.
Highlight the methods used by samitis for
mass mobilization.
4.
What do you know of Coral Mill Strike of 1908?
5.
Outline the essence of the Alipore Bomb Case.
6.
Write about the swadeshi venture of V.O.C.
7.
Why was Collector Ashe killed by
Vanchinathan.
GLOSSARY
factionalism
diference of opinion or
disagreement between two groups
within a political organization.
உட்
ட
ச பசல
intelligentsia
highly educated or the intellectual
elite of a society
அறவ ஜவ
்
ள /
்
ற்றநேதார
annulment
invalidation, nullifcation
நக்ம, ஒழபப, ரதத ச
ச
ய
த
ல
Swadeshi
made in one’s own country
தனத நா
ட
டல உற்தத ச
ச
ய
த
ச்ா
ரள
Boycott
refusal to take part in an activity or
to buy a foreign product
ப
்
க்ணபப
triumvirate
a group of three persons
dominating or holding control
ம
பச்
ரம தலைவ
ர
்ள
seditious
Inciting people to rebel against the
authority of a state
அரச
க
க எதரா
்
/ ஆ
ட
ச எதரபப
punitive tax
a tax intended as punishment
தண்
லன
வர
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30
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Web URL:
https://www.euratlas.net/history/index.html
ICT CORNER
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Step - 1
Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2
Click on ‘
World History’
and
Select ‘
India’
in menu
Step - 3
Click the topics one by one and explore the maps (Ex.1903)
*Pictures are indicative only
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page
T rough this activity you will
know about the historical and
Political Maps of India
Step1
Step2
Step3
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31
Introduction
Several events that preceded the First
World War had a bearing on Indian nationalist
politics. In 1905 Japan had defeated Russia. In
1908 the Young Turks and in 1911 the Chinese
nationalists, using Western methods and ideas,
had overthrown their governments. Along with
the First World War these events provide the
background to Indian nationalism during 1916
and 1920.
Europe was the main theatre of the War,
though fghting took place in others parts of
the world as well. Te British recruited a vast
contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa
and West Asia. Afer the War, the soldiers came
back with new ideas which had an impact on the
Indian society. India had to cough up around
£ 367 million, of which £ 229 million as direct
cash and the rest through loans to ofset the
war expenses. India also sent war materials to
the value £ 250 million. Tis caused enormous
economic distress, triggering discontent
amongst Indians.
Te nationalist politics was in low key,
since the Indian National Congress had split
into moderates and extremists, while the
Muslim league supported British interests in
war. In 1916 “the extremists” led by Tilak had
gained control of Congress. Tis led to the rise
of Home Rule Movement in India under the
leadership of Dr Annie Besant in South India
and Tilak in Western India. Te Congress was
reunited during the war. Te strength of Indian
nationalism was increased by the agreement
signed between Hindus and Muslims, known as
the Lucknow Pact, in 1916.
During the War, western revolutionary
ideas were infuencing the radical nationalists
and so the British tried to suppress the national
movement by passing repressive acts. Of all
the repressive acts, the most draconic was the
Rowlatt Act. Tis act was strongly criticized by
the Indian leaders and they organised meetings
to protest against the act. Te international
events too had its impact on India, such as
the revolution in Russia. Te defeat of Turkey
Impact of World War I on
Indian Freedom Movement
3
UNIT
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
Te conditions created by World War I: Moderates and Militants putting up
a united struggle against the British through the Home Rule Leagues of Tilak and Annie
Besant.
Repressive Measures of the British: Enactment of Defence of India Act.
Lucknow Pact facilitating Hindu-Muslim unity.
Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Hindu-Muslim solidarity in Khilafat Movement.
Te impact of World War I and Russian Revolution on the Indian Labour Movement
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32
Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
in World War I and the severe terms of the
Treaty of Sevres signed thereafer undermined
the position of Sultan of Turkey as Khalifa.
Out of the resentment was born the Khilafat
Movement.
India and Indians had taken an active part
in the War believing that Britain would reward
India's loyalty. But only disappointment was
in store. Tus the War had multiple efects on
Indian society, economy and polity. In this
lesson we discuss the role played by Home
Rule League, factors leading to the signing
of Lucknow Pact and its provisions, the
repressive measures of the British culminating
in Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, the Khilafat
Movement and the rise of an organized labour
movement.
3.1
All India Home Rule
League
We may recall
that many foreigners
such as A.O. Hume
had played a pivotal
role in our freedom
movement in the
early stages. Dr Annie
Besant played a similar
role in the early part of
the twentieth century.
Besant was Irish by
birth and had been
active in the Irish home
rule, fabian socialist
and birth control
movements while in
Britain. She joined
the Teosophical
Society, and came to India in 1893. She founded
the Central Hindu College in Benaras (later
upgraded as Benaras Hindu University by
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1916).
With the death of H. S. Olcott in 1907, Besant
succeeded him as the international president
of the Teosophical Society. She was actively
spreading the theosophical ideas from its
George Arundale
Annie Besant
headquarters, Adyar in Chennai, and gained the
support of a number of educated followers such
as Jamnadas Dwarkadas, George Arundale,
Shankerlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, C.P.
Ramaswamy and B.P. Wadia.
In 1914 was when Britain announced its
entry in First World War, it was claimed that
it fghting for freedom and democracy. Indian
leaders believed and supported the British
war eforts. Soon they were disillusioned as
there was no change in the British attitude
towards India. Moreover, split into moderate
and extremist wings, the Indian National
Congress was not strong enough to press for
further political reforms towards self-rule. Te
Muslim League was looked upon suspiciously
by the British once the Sultan of Turkey entered
the War supporting the Central powers.
It was in this backdrop that Besant entered
into Indian Politics. She started a weekly
Te
Commonweal
in 1914. Te weekly focussed
on religious liberty, national education, social
and political reforms. She published a book
How India Wrought for Freedom
in 1915. In
this book she asserted that the beginnings of
national consciousness are deeply embedded in
its ancient past.
She gave the call, 'Te moment of England's
difculty is the moment of India's opportunity'
and wanted Indian leaders to press for reforms.
She toured England and made many speeches
in the cause of India's freedom. She also tried
to form an Indian party in the Parliament but
was unsuccessful. Her visit, however, aroused
sympathy for India. On her return, she started
a daily newspaper
New India
on July 14, 1915.
She revealed her concept of self-rule in a speech
at Bombay: “I mean by self-government that the
country shall have a government by councils,
elected by the people, and responsible to the
House”. She organized public meetings and
conferences to spread the idea and demanded
that India be granted self-government on the
lines of the White colonies afer the War.
On September 28, 1915, Besant made a
formal declaration that she would start the Home
Rule League Movement for India with objectives
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
Tilak popularised the demand for Home
Rule through his lectures. Te popularity
of his League was confned to Maharashtra
and Karnataka but claimed a membership of
14,000 in April 1917 and 32,000 by early 1918.
On 23 July 1916 on his 60th birthday Tilak
was arrested for propagating the idea of Home
Rule.
(b)
Besant's Home Rule League
Finding no signs from the Congress,
Besant herself inaugurated the Home Rule
League at Madras in September 1916.
Its branches were established at Kanpur,
Allahabad, Benaras, Mathura, Calicut and
Ahmednagar. She made an extensive tour and
spread the idea of Home Rule. She declared
that "the price of India's loyalty is India's
Freedom". Moderate congressmen who were
dissatisfed with the inactivity of the Congress
joined the Home Rule League. Te popularity
of the League can be gauged from the fact that
Jawaharlal Nehru, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, B.
Chakravarti, Jitendralal Banerji, Satyamurti
and Khaliquzzaman were taking up the
membership of the League.
As Besant’s Home Rule Movement became
very popular in Madras, the Government
of Madras decided to suppress it. Students
were barred from attending its meetings.
In June 1917 Besant and her associates, B.P.
Wadia and George Arundale were interred in
Ootacamund. The government’s repression
strengthened the supporters, and with
renewed determination they began to resist.
To support Besant, Sir S. Subramaniam
renounced his knighthood. Many leaders like
Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Surendranath
Banerjea who had earlier stayed away from
the movement enlisted themselves. At the
AICC meeting convened on 28 July 1917 Tilak
advocated the use of civil disobedience if they
were not released. Jamnadas Dwarkadas and
Shankerlal Banker, on the orders of Gandhi,
collected one thousand signatures willing
to defy the interment orders and march
to Besant’s place of detention. Due to the
on the lines of the Irish Home Rule League. Te
moderates did not like the idea of establishing
another separate organisation. She too realised
that the sanction of the Congress party was
necessary for her movement to be successful.
In December 1915 due to the eforts
of Tilak and Besant, the Bombay session of
Congress suitably altered the constitution of the
Congress party to admit the members from the
extremist section. In the session she insisted on
the Congress taking up the Home Rule League
programme before September 1916, failing
which she would organize the Home Rule League
on her own.
In 1916, two Home Rule Movements were
launched in the country: one under Tilak and
the other under Besant with their spheres of
activity well demarcated. Te twin objectives of
the Home Rule League were the establishment
of Home Rule for India in British Empire and
arousing in the Indian masses a sense of pride
for the Motherland.
(a)
Tilak Home Rule League
Tilak Home Rule League was set up at
the Bombay Provincial conference held at
Belgaum in April 1916. It League was to work
in Maharashtra (including Bombay city),
Karnataka, the Central Provinces and Berar.
Tilak's League was organised into six branches
and Annie Besant's League was given the rest of
India.
Home Rule: It refers to a self-government
granted by a central or regional government
to its dependent political units on condition
that their people should remain politically
loyal to it. Tis was a common feature in
the ancient Roman Empire and the modern
British Empire. In Ireland the Home Rule
Movement gathered force in the 1880s and
a system of Home Rule was established by
the Government of Ireland Act (1920) in six
counties of Northern Ireland and later by the
Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) in the remaining
26 counties in the south.
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
3.2
Impact of the War
During the years
prior to First World
War the political
condition of the India
was in disarray. In
order to win over the
“Moderates” and the
Muslim League with a
view to isolating the
“Extremists” the British passed the Minto–
Morley Reforms in 1909. Te Moderates
observed a policy of wait and watch. Te Muslim
League welcomed the separate electorate
accorded to them. In 1913 a new group of leaders
joined the League. Te most prominent among
them was Muhammad Ali Jinnah who was
already a member of the Congress and demanded
more reforms for the Muslims.
Te First World War provided the objective
conditions for the revolutionary activity in
India. Te revolutionaries wanted to make use
of Britain's difculty during the War to their
advantage. Te Ghadar Movement was one of its
outcomes.
Te First World
War had a major
impact on the freedom
movement. Initially,
the British didn't care
for Indian support.
Once the war theatre
moved to West Asia
and Africa the British
were forced to look for Indian support. In this
context Indian leaders decided to put pressure
on the British Government for reforms. Te
Congress and Muslim League had their annual
session at Bombay in 1915 and spoke on similar
tones. In October 1916, the Hindu and Muslim
elected members of the Imperial Legislative
Council addressed a memorandum to the
Viceroy on the post-War reforms. Te British
Government was unmoved. Te Congress and
the League met at Calcutta in November 1916
and deliberated on the memorandum. It also
Minto
Morley
growing resistance the interned nationalists
were released.
On 20 August 1917 the new Secretary of
State Montagu announced that 'self-governing
institutions and responsible government' was
the goal of the British rule in India. Almost
overnight this statement converted Besant
into a near-loyalist. In September 1917, when
she was released, she was elected the President
of Calcutta session of the Indian National
Congress in 1917.
(c)
Importance of the Home Rule
Movement
Te Home Rule Leagues prepared the
ground for mass mobilization paving the
way for the launch of Gandhi’s satyagraha
movements. Many of the early Gandhian
satyagrahis had been members of the Home
Rule Leagues. Tey used the organisational
networks created by the Leagues to spread the
Gandhian method of agitation. Home Rule
League was the frst Indian political movement
to cut across sectarian lines and have members
from the Congress, League, Teosophist and
the Laborites.
(d)
Decline of Home Rule
Movement
Home Rule Movement declined afer
Besant accepted the proposed Montagu–
Chelmsford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain
in September 1918 to pursue the libel case that
he had fled against Valentine Chirol, the author
of
Indian Unrest.
Te Indian Home Rule League was
renamed the Commonwealth of India League
and used to lobby British MPs in support
of self-government for India within the
empire, or dominion status along the lines of
Canada and Australia. It was transformed by
V.K. Krishna Menon into the India League in
1929.
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
National Party have come to realize the fact
that united they stand, but divided they fall,
and brothers have at last met brothers..." Te
Congress got its old vigour with extremists back
into it.
Besant and Tilak also played an important
role in bringing the Congress and the Muslim
League together under what is popularly known
as the Congress–League Pact or the Lucknow
Pact. Jinnah played a pivotal role during the Pact.
Te agreements accepted at Calcutta in November
1916 were confrmed by the annual sessions of
the Congress and the League in December 1916.
3.3
Provisions of the
Lucknow Pact
i)
Provinces should be freed as much as possible
from Central control in administration and
fnance.
ii)
Four-ffhs of the Central and Provincial
Legislative Councils should be elected, and
one-ffh nominated.
iii)
Four-ffhs of the provincial and central
legislatures were to be elected on as broad a
franchise as possible.
iv)
Half the executive council members, including
those of the central executive council were to
be Indians elected by the councils themselves.
v)
Te Congress also agreed to separate
electorates for Muslims in provincial
council elections and for preferences in their
favour (beyond the proportions indicated
by population) in all provinces except the
Punjab and Bengal, where some ground
was given to the Hindu and Sikh minorities.
Tis pact paved the way for Hindu–Muslim
cooperation in the Khilafat Movement and
Gandhi’s Non–Cooperation Movement.
vi)
Te Governments, Central and Provincial,
should be bound to act in accordance with
resolutions passed by their Legislative
Councils unless they were vetoed by the
Governor-General or Governors–in–
Council and, in that event, if the resolution
was passed again afer an interval of not less
than one year, it should be put into efect.
agreed on the composition of the legislatures
and the number of representation to be allowed
to the two communities in the post-War
reforms.
Parallel to this, Tilak and Besant were
advocating Home Rule. Due to their eforts
the Bombay session accepted to take back
the extremist section and, consequently, the
constitution of the Congress was altered. 1916
was therefore a historic year since the Congress,
Muslim League and the Home Rule League held
their annual sessions
at Lucknow. Ambika
Charan Mazumdar,
Congress president
welcomed the
extremists: "… afer
ten years of painful
separation … Indian
Lala Hardayal,
who settled in
San Francisco,
founded Pacifc
Coast Hindustan
Association in
1913, with Sohan
Singh Bhakna as
its president. Tis
organization was popularly called Ghadar
Party. (‘Ghadar’ means rebellion in Urdu.)
Te members of this party were largely
immigrant Sikhs of US and Canada. Te
party published a journal called
Ghadar
. It
began publication from San Francisco on
November 1, 1913. Later it was published in
Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi and other languages.
Te Ghadar Movement was an important
episode in India’s freedom struggle. A ship
named
Komagatamaru
, flled with Indian
immigrants was turned back from Canada.
As the ship returned to India several of
its passengers were killed or arrested in a
clash with the British police. Tis incident
lef a deep mark on the Indian nationalist
movement.
Lala Hardayal
A.C. Mazumdar
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
British suspected that some Indian nationalists
were in contact with revolutionaries abroad. So
the Foreigners Ordinance was promulgated in
1914 which restricted the entry of foreigners.
A majority of these legislations were passed in
order to break the base of the revolutionary
movements. Te colonial state also resorted
to banning meetings, printing and circulation
of seditious materials for propaganda, and by
detaining the suspects.
3.5
The Defence of India
Act, 1915
Also referred to as the Defence of India
Regulations Act, it was an emergency criminal
law enacted with the intention of curtailing the
nationalist and revolutionary activities during
the First World War. Te Act allowed suspects
to be tried by special tribunals each consisting
of three Commissioners appointed by the Local
Government. Te act empowered the tribunal
to infict sentences of death, transportation for
life, and imprisonment of up to ten years for
the violation of rules or orders framed under
the act. Te trail was to be in camera and the
decisions were not subject to appeal. Te
act was later applied during the First Lahore
Conspiracy trial. Tis Act, afer the end of First
World War, formed the basis of the Rowlatt Act.
3.6
Khilafat Movement
In the First World War the Sultan of
Turkey sided with the Triple Alliance against
the allied powers and attacked Russia. Te
Sultan was also the Caliph and was the
custodian of the Islamic sacred places. Afer
the war, Britain decided to weaken the position
of Turkey and the Treaty of Sevres was signed.
Te eastern part of the Turkish Empire such as
Syria and Lebanon were mandated to France,
while Palestine and Jordan became British
protectorates. Tus the allied powers decided
to end the caliphate.
vii)
Te relations of the Secretary of State with
the Government of India should be similar
to those of the Colonial Secretary with the
Governments of the Dominions, and India
should have an equal status with that of the
Dominions in any body concerned with
imperial afairs.
Te Lucknow Pact paved the way for
Hindu-Muslim Unity. Sarojini Ammaiyar called
Jinnah, the chief architect of the Lucknow Pact,
“the Ambassador of Hindu–Muslim Unity”.
Te Lucknow Pact proved that the educated
class both from the Congress and the League
could work together with a common goal. Tis
unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and
the Non-Cooperation Movements.
3.4
Repressive Measures
of the Colonial State
Parallel to the Congress
there emerged revolutionary
groups who attempted to
overthrow away the British
government through
violence methods. Te
revolutionary movements
constituted an important landmark in India's
freedom struggle. It began in the end of the
nineteenth century and gained its momentum
from the time of the partition of Bengal.
Te revolutionaries were the frst to demand
complete freedom. Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab
were the major centers of revolutionary activity.
For a brief while Madras presidency was also an
active ground of the revolutionary activity.
In order to crush the growing nationalist
movement, the government adopted many
measures. Lord Curzon created the Criminal
Intelligence Department (CID) in 1903 to
secretly collect information on the activities
of nationalists. Te Newspapers (Incitement
to Ofences) Act (1908) and the Explosives
Substances Act (1908), and shortly thereafer the
Indian Press Act (1910), and the Prevention of
Seditious Meetings Act (1911) were passed. Te
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
Te demands of the Khilafat Movement
were presented by Mohammad Ali to the
diplomats in Paris in March 1920. Tey were:
1.
Te Sultan of Turkey's position of Caliph
should not be disturbed.
2.
Te Muslim sacred places must be handed
over to the Sultan and should be controlled
by him.
3.
Te Sultan must be lef with sufcient territory
to enable him to defend the Islamic faith and
4.
Te Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq,
Palestine) must remain under his sovereignty.
Te demands of the movement had nothing
do to with India but the question of Caliph was
used as a symbol by the Khilafat leaders to unite the
Indian Muslim community who were divided along
regional, linguistic, class and sectarian lines. In Gail
Minault's words: "A pan-Islamic symbol opened the
way to pan-Indian Islamic political mobilization." It
was anti-British, which inspired Gandhi to support
this cause in a bid to bring the Muslims into the
mainstream of Indian nationalism. Gandhi also saw
this as an opportunity to strengthen Hindu–Muslim
unity.
Te Khilafat issue was interpreted
diferently by diferent sections. Lower-class
Muslims in U.P. interpreted the Urdu word
khilaf (against) and used it as a symbol of general
revolt against authority, while the Mappillais
of Malabar converted it into a banner of anti-
landlord revolt.
Khilafat Movement
Te dismemberment of the Caliphate was
seen as a blow to Islam. Muslims around the
world, sympathetic to the cause of the Caliph,
decided to oppose the move. Muslims in India
also organised themselves under the leadership
of the Ali brothers – Maulana Muhammad Ali
and Maulana Shaukat Ali started a movement
known as Khilafat Movement. Te aim was to the
support the Ottoman Empire and protest against
the British rule in India. Numerous Muslim
leaders such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A.
Ansari, Sheikh Shaukat Ali Siddiqui and Syed
Ataullah Shah Bukhari joined the movement.
Mappilla Uprising in Malabar
Gandhi had been honoured with Kaisari-
Hind gold medal for his humanitarian work
in South Africa. He had also received the
Zulu War silver medal for his services as an
ofcer of the Indian volunteer ambulance
corps in 1906 and Boer War silver medal for
his services as assistant superintendent of
the Indian volunteer stretcher-bearer corps
during Boer War of 1899–1900. When Gandhi
launched the scheme of non-cooperation
in connection with Khilafat Movement, he
returned all the medals saying, ‘…events that
have happened during the past one month
have confrmed in me the opinion that the
Imperial Government have acted in the
Khilafat matter in an unscrupulous, criminal
and unjust manner and have been moving
from wrong to wrong in order to defend their
immorality. I can retain neither respect nor
afection for such a government.’
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
Wadia. The union was
formed mainly due
to the ill-treatment
of Indian worker
in the Buckingham
and Carnatic Mills,
Perambur. The
working conditions
was poor. Short
interval for mid-day meal, frequent assaults
on workers by the European assistants and
inadequate wages led to the formation of
this union. This union adopted collective
bargaining and used trade unionism as a
weapon for class struggle.
Tis wave spread to other parts of India
and many unions were formed at this time such
as the Indian Seamen’s Union both at Calcutta
and Bombay, the Punjab Press Employers
Association, the G.I.P. Railway Workers Union
Bombay, M.S.M. Railwaymen’s Union, Union of
the Postmen and Port Trust Employees Union at
Bombay and Calcutta, the Jamshedpur Labour
Association, the Indian Colliery Employees
Association of Jharia and the Unions of
employees of various railways. To suppress the
labour movement the Government, with the
help of the capitalists, tried by all means to
subdue the labourers. Tey imprisoned strikers,
burnt their houses, and fned the unions, but the
labourers were determined in their demands.
Nationalist leaders and intellectuals were
moved by the plight of the workers, and many
of them worked towards organizing them
into unions. Teir involvement also led to the
politicization of the working class, and added to
the strength of the freedom movement as most
of the mills were owned by Europeans who were
supported by the government.
On 30 October 1920, representatives
of 64 trade unions, with a membership of
140,854, met in Bombay and established the
All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
under the Chairmanship of Lala Lajpat Rai. It
was supported by national leaders like Motilal
Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai
3.7
Rise of Labour
Movement
Introduction
of machinery, new
methods of production,
concentration of
factories in certain
big cities gave birth
to a new class of wage
earners called factory
workers. In India, the
factory workers, mostly drawn from villages,
initially remained submissive and unorganised.
Many leaders like Sorabjee Shapoorji and N.M.
Lokhanday of Bombay and Sasipada Banerjee
of Bengal raised their voice for protecting the
interests of the industrial labourers.
In the afermath of Swadeshi Movement
(1905) Indian industries began to thrive. During
the War the British encouraged Indian industries
which manufactured war time goods. As the war
progressed they wanted more goods so more
workers were recruited. Once the war ended
workers were laid of and production cut down.
Further prices increased dramatically in the
post-War situation. India was also in the grip of
a world-wide epidemic of infuenza. In response
labourers began to organize to fght and trade
unions were formed to protect the interests of
the workers.
Te success of the Bolshevik Revolution of
1917 also had its efect on Indian labour. A wave of
ideas of class consciousness and enlightenment
swept the world of Indian labours. Te Indian
soldiers who had fought in Europe brought the
news of good labour conditions. Te industrial
unrest that grew up as a result of grave economic
difculties created by War, and the widening
gulf between the employers and the employees,
and the establishment of International Labour
Organisation of the League of Nations brought
mass awakening among the labours.
Madras played a pivotal role in the
history of labour movement of India. The first
trade union in the modern sense, the Madras
Labour Union, was formed in 1918 by B.P.
N.M. Lokhanday
Sasipada Banerjee
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others from
the Indian National Congress.
Te trade unions slowly involved
themselves in the national movement. In
April 1919 afer the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
and Gandhi’s arrest, the working class in
Ahmedabad and other parts of Gujarat resorted
to strikes, agitations and demonstrations.
Trade unions were not recognised by the
capitalists or the government in the beginning.
But the unity of the workers and the strength of
their movement forced the both to recognise
them. From 1919–20 the number of registered
trade unions increased from 107 to 1833 in
1946–47.
Summary
Te events that took place in the frst two
decades of the twentieth century including
the outbreak of the First World War had a
major impact on Indian nationalist politics.
Te political vacuum created as a result
of the split in the Congress paved the way
for the rise of Home Rule League by Annie
Besant.
Te Home Rule Movement of both Tilak
and Besant demanded self-governing
status for India.
Te War provided an opportunity for the
Congress and the Muslim League to come
together and sign the famous Lucknow
Pact, resulting in Hindu–Muslim unity.
During the War the British passed many
repressive acts aimed at curbing any
activity towards India’s freedom from the
British rule.
While the crushing defeat of Turkey and
the humiliating peace treaty imposed on
it led to Khilafat Movement, the Russian
Revolution paved the way for the rise of
Trade Union Movement in India.
Te First World War indirectly prepared
the ground for the launch of new form of
protest under the leadership of Gandhi.
I.
Choose the
correct answer.
1.
Te Home Rule Movement in south India
was started by
(a) Tilak
(b)
Annie B
esant
(c)
B.P. Wadia
(d) Co
l. H.S. Olcott
2.
Which of the following about Annie Besant
are correct?
1.
Annie Besant was elected the international
president of the Teosophical Society, afer
Col. H.S. Olcott.
2.
She started a weekly
Te Commonweal
in 1914.
3.
She published a book
How India Wrought
for Freedom
in 1915.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 an
d 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1, 2 an
d 3
3.
Assertion:
Sarojini Ammaiyar called Jinnah
‘the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity’.
Reason:
Jinnah was the chief architect of the
Lucknow pact.
(a) A is correct R does not explain A.
(b) A is correct and R explanations A.
(c) A is wrong and R is correct.
(d) Both A and R are wrong
4.
Who founded the Banaras Hindu University?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Madan Mohan Malaviya
(c) Tilak
(d) B.P. Wadia
5.
Te Lucknow session of 1916 is noted for
(a) Resurgence of Muslim League
(b)
Temporary merger of Muslims League
into Congress
(c)
Congress’ acceptance of League’s demand
for separate electorates for Muslims
(d)
Jinnah’s negative role in the joint-session
of the League and the Congress
EXERCISE
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
3.
What were the demands of the Khilafat
Movement presented to the Paris peace
conference held in March 1920?
4.
What was the impact and signifcance of the
Madras Labour Union?
IV. Answer the following in detail
1.
Highlight the important provisions of
Lucknow Pact.
2.
Narrate the work done by two Home Rule
Movements one under Tilak and another
under Annie Besant.
V. Activity
1.
Debate why unions are important in today's
society to be organised in classes.
2.
Te major association and unions be
identifed and their activits recorded
through group projects.
REFERENCES
1.
Bipan Chandra,
India's Struggle for
Independence
, Penguin, 2016.
2.
Sumit Sarkar,
Modern India: 1885–1947,
Pearson, 2014.
3.
Sekar Bandyopadhyay,
From Plassey to
Partition and Afer: A History of Modern India,
Orient BlackSwan, 2014.
4.
Jaswant Singh,
Jinnah: India,
Partition,
Independence.
Rupa
,
2009.
5.
Ramachandra Guha,
Gandhi: Te Years that
Changed the World, 1914–1948,
Penguin, 2018.
INTERNET RESOURCES
www.brittanica.com
6.
Match the following with the help of codes
given below.
(A) Ghadar Party
-
(i)
1916
(B) New India
-
(ii) 1913
(C) Home Rule
-
(iii) 1909
(D) Minto-Morley Reforms
-
(iv) 1915
(a) ii, iv, i, iii
(b) iv, i
, ii, iii
(c) i, iv, iii, ii
(d) ii, iii, i
v, i
7.
Te author of the book
Indian Unrest
was
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Valen
tine Chirol
(c) Tilak
(d) Annie Bes
ant
8.
Te Ghadar Party was started by
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) A.C. Mazumd
ar
(c) Lala Hardayal
(d) Sanka
rlal Banker
9.
Who was the president of the frst All-India
Trade Union Congress?
(a) B.P. Wadia
(b) Jawa
harlal Nehru
(c) Lala Lajpat Rai
(d) C.R. Da
s
II. Write brief answers
1.
What were the repressive measures adopted
by colonial government to crush the growing
nationalist movement during 1903-1914?
2.
What was the background for the launch of
the Khilafat movement?
3.
Name the book and weekly published by
Annie Besant.
4.
Describe the Defence of India Act, 1915.
III. Write short answer
1.
Discuss the twin objectives of the Home Rule
League?
2.
Why is Ghadar Movement considered an
important episode in India’s freedom struggle.
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Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
GLOSSARY
draconic
very harsh and severe
கடைமயான, ெகாடைமயான
contingent
a group of police or military
personnel
காவலர / ராணவப பரவ
conspiracy
a secret plan by a group of people to
do something illegal
இரகசய கடடம / சதததடடம
moderate
avoiding extremes
மதவாத ேதசயவாத
knighthood
a person given a rank of honour by
a British king or queen because of his
or her special achievement
வரதரததைகபபடடம
extremist
a person who holds a radical view in
politics or religion.
தவரவாத
memorandum
a petition that is presented to a
person or committee on a particular
issue
கறபபாைண
immigrant
a person who arrives to take up
permanent residence in a country
கடபகபவர
Web URL:
http://indiaww1.in/index.aspx
Step - 1
Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2
Scroll down, Click on
‘Timeline’
Step - 3
Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events
*Pictures are indicative only
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page
T rough this activity you
will learn about Role of
India in the World War - I
ICT CORNER
Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
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42
Introduction
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
born in the coastal town of Porbandar in
1869. When he returned to India in 1915 he
had a record of fighting against inequalities
imposed by the racist government of South
Africa. Gandhi certainly wanted to be of
help to forces of nationalism in India. He was
in touch with leaders India as he had come
into contact with Congress leaders while
mobilizing support for the South African
Indian cause earlier. Impressed by activities
and ideas of Gopala Krishna Gokhale, he
acknowledged him as his political Guru.
On his return to India, following Gokhale’s
advice, Gandhi, who was away from India for
over two decades, spent a year travelling all
over the country acquainting himself with
the situation. He established his Sabarmati
Ashram at Ahmedabad but did not take active
part in political movements including the
Home Rule movement.
While in South Africa, Gandhi, gradually
evolved the technique of ‘Satyagraha,’ based on
‘Satya’ and ‘Ahimsa’ i.e, truth and non-violence,
to fght the racist South African regime. Even
while resisting evil and wrong a Satyagrahi
had to be at peace with himself and not hate
the wrongdoer. A Satyagrahi would willingly
accept sufering in the course of resistance, and
hatred had no place in the exercise. Truth and
nonviolence would be weapons of the brave
and fearless and not cowards. For Gandhi there
was no diference between precept and practice,
faith and action.
4.1
Gandhi’s Experiments
of Satyagraha
(a)
Champaran Movement
(1917)
Te frst attempt at mobilizing the Indian
masses was made by Gandhi on an invitation
by peasants of Champaran. Before launching
the struggle he made a detailed study of the
situation. Indigo cultivators of the district
Champaran in Bihar were severely exploited
by the European planters who had bound the
peasants to compulsorily grow indigo on lease
on 3/20
th
of their felds and sell it at the rates
Advent of Gandhi and
Mass Mobilisation
4
UNIT
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
Champaran movement and Kheda satyagraha
Montague-Chelmsford reforms
Te non-Brahmin movement and non-cooperation movement
Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Swaraj party and its activities
Simon Commission, Te Round Table Conferences
Gandhi - Irwin pact and Ambedker in politics
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
worker’s strike and Gandhi’s fast ultimately
forced the mill owners’ to concede the demand.
(c)
The Kheda Struggle (1918)
Te peasants of Kheda district, due to
the failure of monsoon, were in distress. Tey
had appealed to the colonial authorities for
remission of land revenue during 1918. As per
government’s famine code, in the event of crop
yield being under 25 percent of the average the
cultivators were entitled for total remission.
But the authorities refused and harassed them
demanding full payment. Te Kheda peasants
who were also battling the plague epidemic, high
prices and famine approached the Servants of
India Society, of which Gandhi was a member,
for help. Gandhi, along with Vithalbhai Patel,
intervened on behalf of the poor peasants and
advised them to withhold payment and ‘fght
unto death against such a spirit of vindictiveness
and tyranny.’ Vallabhbhai Patel, a young lawyer
and Indulal Yagnik joined Gandhi in the
movement and urged the ryots to be frm. Te
government repression included attachment
of crops, taking possession of the belongings
of the ryots and their cattle and in some cases
auctioning them.
Kheda Satyagraha
Te government authorities issued
instructions that revenues shall be collected
only from those ryots who could aford to pay.
On learning about the same, Gandhi decided to
withdraw the struggle.
fxed by the planters. Tis system squeezed
the peasants and eventually reduced them to
penury. Accompanied by local leaders such
as Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul Huq, Acharya
Kripalani and Mahadeva Desai, Gandhi
conducted a detailed enquiry. Te British
ofcials ordered Gandhi to leave the district.
But he refused and told the administration that
he would defy the order because it was unjust
and face the consequences.
Subsequently an enquiry committee
with Gandhi also as a member was formed.
It was not difficult for Gandhi to convince
the committee of the difficulties of the
poor peasants. The report was accepted and
implemented resulting in the release of the
indigo cultivators of the bondage of European
planters who gradually had to withdraw from
Champaran itself.
(b)
Mill Workers’ Strike and
Gandhi’s Fast at Ahmedabad
(1918)
Tus Gandhi met with his frst success in
his homeland. Te struggle also enabled him to
closely understand the condition of peasantry.
Te next step at mobilizing the masses was
the workers of the urban centre, Ahmedabad.
Tere was a dispute between the textile
workers and the mill owners. He met both the
parties and when the owners refused to accept
the demands of the low paid workers, Gandhi
advised them to go on strike demanding a 35
percent increase in their wages. To bolster the
morale of the workers he went on fast. Te
Gandhi in Champaran
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
Governors. Other subjects such as health,
educations and local self-government were
‘transferred’ to elected Indian representatives.
Ministers holding ‘transferred subjects’ were
responsible to the legislatures; but those in-
charge of ‘reserved’ subjects were not further
the Governor of the province could overrule
the ministers under ‘special (veto) powers,’
thus making a mockery of the entire scheme.
The part dealing with central legislature in
the act created two houses of legislature (bi-
cameral).
Te Central Legislative Assembly was to
have 41 nominated members, out of a total of
144. Te Upper House known as the Council of
States was to have 60 members, of whom 26 were
to be nominated. Both the houses had no control
over the Governor General and his Executive
Council. But the Central Government had full
control over the provincial governments. As
a result, power was concentrated in the hands
of the European / English authorities. Right to
vote also continued to be restricted.
Te public spirited men of India, who
had extended unconditional support to the
war eforts of Britain had expected more. Te
scheme, when announced in 1918, came to
be criticized throughout India. Te Indian
National Congress met in a special session at
Bombay in August 1918 to discuss the scheme.
Te congress termed the scheme ‘disappointing
and unsatisfactory.’
Te colonial government followed a ‘carrot
and stick policy.’ Tere was a group of moderate
/ liberal political leaders who wanted to try and
work the reforms. Led by Surendranath Banerjee,
they opposed the majority opinion and lef the
Congress to form their own party which came
to be called Indian Liberal Federation.
4.3
The Non-Brahmin
Movement
Te hierarchical Indian society and the
contradictions within, found expression in the
formation of caste associations and movements
to question the dominance of higher castes. Te
Te three struggles led by Gandhi,
demonstrated that he had understood where
the Indian nation lay. It was the poor peasants
and workers of all classes and castes, who
constituted the pith and marrow of India, whose
interests Gandhi espoused in these struggles.
He had confronted both the colonialist and
Indian exploiters and by entering into dialogue
with them, he had demonstrated that he was a
leader who could mobilize the oppressed and
at the same time negotiate with the oppressors.
Tese virtues made him the man of the masses
and soon he was hailed as the Mahatma.
Servants of India Society was founded
by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905 to unite
and train Indians of diferent castes, regions
and religions in welfare work. It was the frst
secular organization in the country to devote
itself to the betterment of underprivileged,
rural and tribal people. Te members involved
themselves in relief work, the promotion of
literacy, and other social causes. Members
would have to go through a fve-year training
period and agree to serve on modest salaries.
Te organization has its headquarters in
Pune (Maharashtra) and notable branches
in Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay),
Allahabad and Nagpur.
4.2
Montagu–Chelmsford
Reforms
Edwin Montagu and Chelmsford, the
Secretary of State for India and Viceroy
respectively, announced their scheme of
constitutional changes for India which came
to be known as the Indian Councils Act
of 1919. The Act enlarged the provincial
legislative councils with elected majorities.
The governments in the provinces were
given more share in the administration
under ‘Dyarchy.’ Under this arrangement
all important subjects like law and order
and finance ‘reserved’ for the whitemen
and were directly under the control of the
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
their caste brethren and helped their educated
youth in getting jobs. In the meantime,
introduction of electoral politics from the 1880s
gave a fllip to such organisations. Te outcome
of all this was the expression of socio-economic
tensions through caste consciousness and caste
solidarity.
Two trends emerged out of the non-
Brahmin movements. One was what is called
the process of ‘Sanskritisatian’ of the ‘lower’
castes and the second was a radical pro-poor
and progressive peasant–labour movements.
While the northern and eastern caste movements
by and large were Sanskritic, the western and
southern movements split and absorbed by the
rising nationalist and Dravidian–Lef
movements. However all these movements were
critical of what they called as ‘Brahmin
domination’ and attacked their ‘monopoly’, and
pleaded with the government through their
associations for justice. In Bombay and Madras
presidencies clear-cut Brahmin monopoly in
the government services and general cultural
arena led to non-Brahmin politics.
Te pattern of the movement in south
was a little diferent. Te Brahmin monopoly
was quite formidable as with only 3.2% of the
population they had 72% of all graduates. Tey
came to be challenged by educated and trading
community members of the non-Brahmin
castes. Tey were elitist in the beginning and
their challenge was articulated by the Non-
Brahmin Manifesto issued at the end of 1916.
Tey asserted that they formed the ‘bulk of the
tax payers, including a large majority of the
zamindars, landlords and agriculturists’, yet
they received no benefts from the state.
Te colonial
government made
use of the genuine
grievances of the
non-Brahmins to
divide and rule India.
Tis was true with
the Brahmanetara
Parishat, and the
Justice Party of
Ambedkar and Periyar
higher castes also were controlling the factors
of production and thus the middle and lower
castes were dependent on them for livelihood.
Liberalism and humanism which infuenced
and accompanied the socio-religious reform
movements of the nineteenth century had
afected the society and stirred it. Te symptoms
of their awakening were already visible in the
last quarter of the nineteenth century. Te
Namasudra movement in the Bengal and eastern
India, the Adidharma movement in North
Western India, the Satyashodhak movement in
Western India and the Dravidian movements
in South India had emerged and raised their
voice by the turn of the century. Tey were all
led by non Brahmin leaders who questioned the
supremacy of the Brahmins and other ‘superior’
castes.
It frst manifested itself, through Jyoti Rao
Phule’s book of 1872 titled
Gulamgiri
. His
organization, Satyashodak Samaj, underscored
the necessity to relieve the lower castes from the
tyranny of Brahminism and the exploitative
scriptures. Te colonial administrators and the
educational institutions that were established
indirectly facilitated their origin. Added to the
growing infuence of Brahmin – upper caste
men in the colonial times in whatever
opportunity was open to natives, the colonial
government published census reports once a
decade. Tese reports classifed castes on the
basis of ‘social precedence as recognized by
native public opinion’. Te censuses were a
source of confict between castes. Tere were
claims and counterclaims as the leaders of caste
organizations fought for pre-eminence and
many started new caste associations. Tese
attempts were further helped by the emerging
political scenario.
Leading members of
castes realized that it was
important to mobilise their
castes in struggles for social
recognition. More than the
recognition, many of them,
as years passed by, started
providing for education of
Jyotiba Phule
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46
Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
such as meetings, boycott of foreign cloth and
schools, picketing of toddy shops, petitions
and demonstrations, a novel method was
adopted. Now ‘Satyagraha’ was the weapon to
be used with the wider participation of labour,
artisan and peasant masses. Te symbol of this
change was to be khadi, which soon became the
uniform of nationalists. India’s Swaraj would be
a reality only when the masses awakened and
became active in political work. Almost the
entire country was electrifed when Gandhi
called upon the people to observe ‘hartal’ in
March–April 1919 against the Rowlatt Act.
He combined it with the Khilafat issue which
brought together Hindus and Muslims.
(b)
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre
Te colonial government was enraged at
the mass struggles and the enthusiasm of the
masses as evidenced in the upsurge all over
the country. On 13
th
April 1919, in Amritsar
town, in the Jallianwala enclave that the most
heinous of political crimes was perpetrated
on an unarmed mass of people by the British
regime. More than two thousand people had
assembled at the venue to peacefully protest
against the arrest of their leaders Satyapal and
Saifudding Kitchlew. Michael O’Dwyer was
the Lt. Governor of Punjab and the military
commander was General Reginald Dyer. Tey
decided to demonstrate their power and teach
a lesson to the dissenters. Te part where
the gathering was held had only one narrow
entrance. Dyer ordered fring on the trapped
crowd with machine guns and rifes till the
ammunition was exhausted. While the ofcial
Bombay and Madras presidencies respectively
at least till 1930. Both the regions had some
socially radical possibilities as could be seen
in the emergence of a radical Dalit-Bahujan
movement under the leadership of Dr
Ambedkar and the Self-Respect Movement
under the leadership of Periyar Ramaswamy.
Te nationalists were unable to understand
the liberal democratic content in the awakening
among the lower strata of Indian society. While
a section of the nationalists simply ignored the
stirrings, a majority of them and particularly
the so-called extremists–radicals were opposed
to the movements. A few of them were even
hostile and labelled them as stooges of British,
anti-national etc. Te early leaders of the non-
Brahmin movement were in fact using the same
tactics as the early nationalist leaders in dealing
with the colonial government.
4.4
Non-cooperation
Movement
(a)
Rowlatt Act
It was as part of the
British policy of ‘rally the
moderates and isolate the
extremists’ that the Indian
Councils Act 1919 and the
Rowlatt Act of the same
year were promulgated.
Troughout the World
War, the repressive measures against the
terrorists and revolutionaries had continued.
Many of them were hanged or imprisoned for
long terms. As the general mood was restive,
the government decided to arm itself with
more repressive powers. Despite every elected
member of the central legislature opposing
the bill, the government passed the Rowlatt
Act in March 1919. Tis Act empowered the
government to imprison any person without
trial.
Gandhi and his associates were shocked.
It was the ‘Satyagraha Sabha’ founded by
Gandhi, which pledged to disobey the Act frst.
In the place of the old agitational methods
Rowlatt
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
A Sikh teenager
who was raised at
Khalsa Orphanage
named Udham Singh
saw the happening
in his own eyes. To
avenge the killings
of Jallianwalla Bagh,
on 30 March 1940,
he assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in Caxton
Hall of London. Udham Singh was hanged at
Pentonville jail, London
Udham Singh
Gandhi and the Congress, who were bent
upon Hindu-Muslim unity, now stood by their
Muslim compatriots who felt betrayed by the
British regime. Te Ali brothers – Shukha
and Muhammed – and Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad were the prime movers in the Khilafat
movement.
(c)
Launch of Non-Cooperation
Movement
Te Khilafat Conference, at the instance of
Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation
movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier
an all party meet at Allahabad had decided
on a programme of boycott of government
educational institutions and their law courts.
Te Congress met in a special session at
Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to
accept Gandhi’s proposal on non-cooperation
with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat
and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-
government established.
Non-cooperation movement included
boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government
ofces, legislatures, foreign goods, return
of government conferred titles and awards.
Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were
to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured
and used. Te struggle at a later stage was
to include no tax campaign and mass civil
disobedience, etc. A regular Congress session
held at Nagpur in 1920 endorsed the earlier
resolutions. Another important resolution at
Nagpur was to recognize and set up linguistic
fgures of the dead was only about 379 the
real number was over a thousand. Martial law
was imposed all over Punjab and people were
subject to untold indignities.
Te entire country was horrifed at the
brutalities. In Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Lahore
there were widespread protests against the
Rowlatt Act where the protesters were fred
upon. Tere was violence in many towns and
cities. Protesting against the brutalities many
celebrities renounced their titles, of whom
Ravindranath Tagore was one.
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his
knighthood immediately afer the Jallianwalla
Bagh massacre. In his protest letter to the
viceroy on May 31, 1919, Tagore wrote "Te
time has come when the badge of honour
makes our shame glaring in their incongruous
context of humiliation, and, I for my part,
wish to stand shorn of all special distinctions,
by the side of those of my countrymen who
for their so-called insignifcance are liable to
sufer degradation not ft for human beings."
Te two immediate causes responsible for
launching the non-cooperation movement were
the Khilafat and the Punjab wrongs. While the
khilafat issue related to the position of the Turkish
Sultan vis-a- vis the holy places of Islam, the Punjab
issue related to the exoneration of the perpetrators
of the Jallianwala massacre. While the control over
holy places of Islam was taken over by non-Islamic
powers against the assurances of the British rulers,
the British courts of enquiry totally exonerated
Reginald Dyer and Michael O’Dwyer of the crime
perpetrated at Jallianwala.
Ali Brothers
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
Workers and peasants had gone on strike across
the country. Gandhi promised Swaraj, if Indians
participated in the non-cooperation movement
on non-violent mode within a year.
South India surged forward during this
phase of the struggle. Te peasants of Andhra,
withheld payment of taxes to the zamindars and
the whole population of Chirala-Perala refused
to pay taxes and vacated the town en-mass.
Hundreds of village Patels and Shanbogues
resigned their jobs. Non-Cooperation
movement in Tamil Nadu was organised and
led by stalwarts like C. Rajagopalachari, S.
Satyamurthi and Periyar E.V.R. In Kerala,
peasants organized anti-jenmi struggles.
Te Viceroy admitted in a letter to the
Secretary of State that the movement had
seriously afected lower classes in certain areas
of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the
peasants have been afected. Impressed by the
intensity of the movement, in a special session
the Congress reiterated the intensifcation of the
movement.In February 1922 Gandhi announced
that he would lead a mass civil disobedience,
including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the
government did not ensure press freedom and
release the prisoners within seven days.
(e)
Chauri Chaura Incident and
Withdrawal of the Movement
Te common people and the nationalist
workers were exuberant that Swaraj would dawn
soon and participated actively in the struggle. It
had attracted all classes of people including the
tribals living in the jungles. But at the same time
sporadic violence was also witnessed along with
arson. In Malabar and Andhra two very violent
revolts also took place. In the Rampa region of
coastal Andhra the tribals revolted under the
leadership of Alluri Sitarama Raju. In Malabar,
Muslim (Mapilla) peasants rose up in armed
rebellion against upper caste landholders and the
British government.
Chauri-Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur
district of UP had an organized volunteer
group which was participating and leading
the picketing of liquor shops and local bazaar
Provincial Congress Committees which drew a
large number of workers into the movement. In
order to broad base the Congress, the workers
were to reach out to the villages and enroll
the villagers in the Congress on a nominal fee
of four annas (25 paise). Te overall character
of the Congress underwent change and an
atmosphere where a large majority of the masses
could develop a sense of belonging to the nation
and the national struggle developed. But it also
led to some conservatives who were opposed to
mass participation in the struggle to leave the
Congress. Tus the Congress under Gandhi was
shedding its elitist character, becoming a mass
organization and in a real sense ‘National’.
Non-Cooperaors with Gandhi
(d)
Impact of Gandhi’s
Leadership
Tousands of schools and hundreds of
colleges and vidyapeethas were established by
the natives as alternatives to the government
institutions. Several leading lawyers gave up
their practice. Tousands of school and college
students lef the government institutions. Te
Ali brothers were arrested and jailed on sedition
charges. Te Congress committees called upon
people to launch civil disobedience movement,
including no tax movements if the Congress
committees of their region were ready. Te
government as usual resorted to repression.
Workers were arrested indiscriminately and put
behind bars. Te visit of Prince of Wales in 1921
to several cities in India was also boycotted. Te
calculation of the colonial government that the
visit of the Prince would evoke loyal sentiments
of the Indian people was proved wrong.
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
There was another
group which opposed
council entry and
wanted to continue
the Gandhian line
by mobilizing the
masses. This team led
by Rajagopalachari,
Vallabhai Patel and
Rajendra Prasad was
called ‘No changers.’ They argued that
electoral politics would divert the attention
of nationalists and pull them away from
the work of mass mobilization and their
issues. They favoured the continuation of
the Gandhian constructive programme of
spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity,
removal of untouchability and mobilise
rural masses and prepare them for new mass
movements. The pro-changers launched the
Swarajya party as a part of the Congress.
A truce was soon worked out and both the
groups would engage themselves in the
Congress programmes and their work should
complement each other’s activities under
the leadership of Gandhi, though Gandhi
personally favoured constructive work.
The Swarajya party did reasonably well
in the elections to Central Assembly by
winning 42 of the 101 seats open for election.
With the cooperation of other members
they were able to stall many anti-people
legislations of the colonial regime, and were
successful in exposing the inadequacy of the
Act of 1919. But their efforts and enthusiasm
petered out as time passed by and consciously
or unconsciously they came to be co-opted
by the Government as members of several
committees constituted by it.
In the absence of nationalist mass
struggle, fissiparous tendencies started rising
their head. There were a series of communal
riots with fundamentalist elements occupying
the space. Even the Swaraj party was affected
by the sectarianism as one group in the name
of ‘responsivists’ started cooperating with the
government, claiming to safeguard “Hindu
against high prices. On 5 February 1922, a
Congress procession, 3000 strong, was fred
upon by police Enraged by the fring, the mob
attacked and burnt down the police station.
22 policemen lost their lives. It was this incident
which made Gandhi announce the suspension
of the non-cooperation movement.
Te Congress Working Committee ratifed
the decision at Bardoli, to the disappointment
of the nationalist workers. While the younger
workers resented the decision, the others who
had faith in Gandhi considered it a tactical
retreat. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas
Chandra Bose were critical of Gandhi, who
was arrested and sentenced to 6 years in prison.
Tus ended the non-cooperation movement.
Te Khilafat issue was made redundant
when the people of Turkey under the leadership
of Mustafa Kamal Pasha rose in revolt and
stripped the Sultan of his political power and
abolished the Caliphate and declared that
religion and politics could not go together.
4.5
Swarajist Party and its
Activities
Following the suspension of Non-
cooperation the question was what next?
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru
proposed a new line of activity. They wanted
to return to active politics which included
entry into electoral politics and demonstrate
that the nationalists were capable of
obstructing the working of the reformed
legislature by capturing them and arousing
nationalist spirit. This group came to be
called the ‘Swarajists and pro-changers’. In
Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group.
Satyamurti
Motilal Nehru
Chitaranjan Das
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Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation
Ramprasad Bismil and Ashfaq-ullah were
convicted to death and 17 others were sentenced
to long term imprisonment in the Kakori
conspiracy case. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar
Azad and Rajguru, enraged at the police brutality
and death of Lajpat Rai, killed Saunders, the
British police ofcer who led the lathi charge
at Lahore. Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt
threw a bomb into the central Assembly hall on
8 April 1929. In 1929 the Meerut conspiracy case
was fled and three dozen communist leaders
were sentenced to long spells of jail terms. All
these developments and incidents are discussed
in detail in the next lesson.
Chandrashekar Azad
Sukhdev
4.6
Simon Commission–
Nehru Report – Lahore
Congress
Te British were due to consider and
announce another instalment of constitutional
reforms some time in 1929–30. In preparation,
it announced the setting up of Indian Statutory
commission (known as ‘Simon Commission’
afer its chairman). Te commission had only
whitemen as members and it was an insult
to Indians. Te Congress at it annual session
in Madras in 1927 resolved to boycott the
commission. Te Muslim league and the Hindu
Mahasabha also supported the decision. A series
of conferences were held and the consensus
was to work for an alternative proposal. Most
of the parties agreed to challenge the colonial
attitude towards India and the result was
the Motilal Nehru Report. However the All-
Parties meet held in 1928 December at Calcutta
failed to accept it on the issue of communal
representation.
interests”. The Muslim fundamentalists
similarly seized the space created by the
lull in national struggle and started fanning
communal feeling. Rise of Left Radicalism
Gandhi was pained at the developments. To
contain the communal frenzy he went on a 21
day fast.
Left Movement
Meanwhile socialist ideas and its activists
also had flled some space through their work
among peasants and workers. Te labour
and peasant movements were organized
by the ‘lefists’. Marxism as an ideology to
criticise colonialism and capitalism had
gained ground. It manifested itself in the
organization of students and youth apart from
trade unions. Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas
Chandra Bose contributed to the spread of
lefist ideology. Tey argued that both colonial
exploitation and the internal exploitation by
the emerging capitalists should be fought. A
group of youngsters with S A. Dange, M.N
Roy, Muzafar Ahmed along with elderly
persons such as Singaravelu form Tamilnadu
founded the peasants and worker’s parties.
Te government came down heavily on the
communist-socialists and the revolutionaries
a series of ‘conspiracy cases’ such as Kanpur,
Meerut, Kakori were booked.
It was at this juncture Bhagat Singh,
Chandrashekar Azad, Rajguru and Sukhdev
emerged on the scene. Te Naujawan Bharat
Sabha, Hindustan Republican Association
were started and thousands of youngmen and
women became active anti-colonialists and
revolutionaries. Youth and student conferences
were organized all over the country. Meanwhile
Bhagat Singh
Rajguru
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